fig2

Figure 2. DDR is a cellular mechanism that detects and repairs DNA damage including SSBs and DSBs, caused by treatments. DNA damage activates H2AX which recruits ATM to initiate the DDR. ATM activates BRCA1/2 for repair, while p53 drives apoptosis via BAX by inhibiting Bcl-2, Bcl-w, and Mcl-1, leading to cell death. p53 can also transcribe p21 which inhibits the CDK complexes, promoting cell cycle progression. Created in BioRender. Attathikhun, M. (2025) https://BioRender.com/cjd64fm. DDR: DNA damage responses; SSBs: single-stranded breaks; DSBs: double-stranded breaks; H2AX: H2A histone family member X; ATM: ataxia telangiectasia mutated; BRCA1/2: breast cancer type 1/2 early onset; BAX: BCL2-associated X protein; CDK: cyclin-dependent kinase.