REFERENCES
1. Phillips, B. T.; Becker, K. P.; Kurumaya, S.; et al. A dexterous, glove-based teleoperable low-power soft robotic arm for delicate deep-sea biological exploration. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 14779.
3. Smith, K. L. Jr; Sherman, A. D.; McGill, P. R.; et al. Abyssal Benthic Rover, an autonomous vehicle for long-term monitoring of deep-ocean processes. Sci. Robot. 2021, 6, eabl4925.
4. Yoerger, D. R.; Govindarajan, A. F.; Howland, J. C.; et al. A hybrid underwater robot for multidisciplinary investigation of the ocean twilight zone. Sci. Robot. 2021, 6, eabe1901.
5. Picardi, G.; Chellapurath, M.; Iacoponi, S.; Stefanni, S.; Laschi, C.; Calisti, M. Bioinspired underwater legged robot for seabed exploration with low environmental disturbance. Sci. Robot. 2020, 5, eaaz1012.
6. Sinatra, N. R.; Teeple, C. B.; Vogt, D. M.; Parker, K. K.; Gruber, D. F.; Wood, R. J. Ultragentle manipulation of delicate structures using a soft robotic gripper. Sci. Robot. 2019, 4, eaax5425.
7. Zhang, X.; Zuo, Y.; Wei, J.; et al. A review on underwater collection and transportation equipment of polymetallic nodules in deep-sea mining. JMSE 2024, 12, 788.
8. Galloway, K. C.; Becker, K. P.; Phillips, B.; et al. Soft robotic grippers for biological sampling on deep reefs. Soft. Robot. 2016, 3, 23-33.
9. Gruber, D. F.; Wood, R. J. Advances and future outlooks in soft robotics for minimally invasive marine biology. Sci. Robot. 2022, 7, eabm6807.
10. Laschi, C.; Calisti, M. Soft robot reaches the deepest part of the ocean. Nature 2021, 591, 35-6.
11. Li, G.; Wong, T. W.; Shih, B.; et al. Bioinspired soft robots for deep-sea exploration. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 7097.
12. Xu, Y.; Zhuo, J.; Fan, M.; et al. A bioinspired shape memory alloy based soft robotic system for deep‐sea exploration. Adv. Intell. Syst. 2024, 6, 2300699.
13. Pan, F.; Liu, J.; Zuo, Z.; et al. Miniature deep-sea morphable robot with multimodal locomotion. Sci. Robot. 2025, 10, eadp7821.
14. Yoder, Z.; Rumley, E. H.; Schmidt, I.; Rothemund, P.; Keplinger, C. Hexagonal electrohydraulic modules for rapidly reconfigurable high-speed robots. Sci. Robot. 2024, 9, eadl3546.
15. Wang, T.; Joo, H. J.; Song, S.; Hu, W.; Keplinger, C.; Sitti, M. A versatile jellyfish-like robotic platform for effective underwater propulsion and manipulation. Sci. Adv. 2023, 9, eadg0292.
16. Rus, D.; Tolley, M. T. Design, fabrication and control of soft robots. Nature 2015, 521, 467-75.
17. Shintake, J.; Cacucciolo, V.; Floreano, D.; Shea, H. Soft robotic grippers. Adv. Mater. , 2018, e1707035.
18. Polygerinos, P.; Wang, Z.; Overvelde, J. T. B.; et al. Modeling of soft fiber-reinforced bending actuators. IEEE. Trans. Robot. 2015, 31, 778-89.
19. Kurumaya, S.; Phillips, B. T.; Becker, K. P.; et al. A modular soft robotic wrist for underwater manipulation. Soft. Robot. 2018, 5, 399-409.
20. Gong, Z.; Chen, B.; Liu, J.; et al. An opposite-bending-and-extension soft robotic manipulator for delicate grasping in shallow water. Front. Robot. AI. 2019, 6, 26.
21. Hasib, S. A.; Gulzar, M. M.; Oishy, S. R.; Maaruf, M.; Habib, S.; Shakoor, A. An investigation of innovative strategies in underwater soft robotics. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. 2025, 70, 102123.
22. Wu, M.; Afridi, W. H.; Wu, J.; et al. Octopus-inspired underwater soft robotic gripper with crawling and swimming capabilities. Research 2024, 7, 0456.
23. Vogt, D. M.; Becker, K. P.; Phillips, B. T.; et al. Shipboard design and fabrication of custom 3D-printed soft robotic manipulators for the investigation of delicate deep-sea organisms. PLoS. ONE. 2018, 13, e0200386.
24. Teeple, C. B.; Becker, K. P.; Wood, R. J. Soft curvature and contact force sensors for deep-sea grasping via soft optical waveguides. In 2018 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Madrid, Spain, Oct 01-05, 2018; IEEE, 2018; pp. 1621-7.
25. Licht, S.; Collins, E.; Mendes, M. L.; Baxter, C. Stronger at depth: jamming grippers as deep sea sampling tools. Soft. Robot. 2017, 4, 305-16.
26. Chen, G.; Yang, X.; Zhang, X.; Hu, H. Water hydraulic soft actuators for underwater autonomous robotic systems. Appl. Ocean. Res. 2021, 109, 102551.
27. Kim, M. S.; Heo, J. K.; Rodrigue, H.; et al. Shape memory alloy (SMA) actuators: the role of material, form, and scaling effects. Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, e2208517.
28. Lum, G. Z.; Ye, Z.; Dong, X.; et al. Shape-programmable magnetic soft matter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2016, 113, E6007-15.
29. Yu, S.; Zhang, W.; Feng, Y.; et al. Magnetic cell-mimetic droplet microrobots with division and exocytosis capabilities. Research 2025, 8, 0730.
30. Zhang, W.; Deng, Y.; Zhao, J.; et al. Amoeba-inspired magnetic venom microrobots. Small 2023, 19, e2207360.
31. Zhang, Z.; Wang, L.; Jiang, F.; et al. Fully integrated wearable control system for micro/nanorobot navigation. Int. J. Extrem. Manuf. 2025, 7, 035505.
33. Ebrahimi, N.; Bi, C.; Cappelleri, D. J.; et al. Magnetic actuation methods in bio/soft robotics. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2020, 31, 2005137.
35. Zhou, H.; Mayorga-Martinez, C. C.; Pané, S.; Zhang, L.; Pumera, M. Magnetically driven micro and nanorobots. Chem. Rev. 2021, 121, 4999-5041.
36. Wang, X.; Bai, R. Advances in smart delivery of magnetic field-targeted drugs in cardiovascular diseases. Drug. Delivery. 2023, 30, 2256495.
37. Kim, Y.; Yuk, H.; Zhao, R.; Chester, S. A.; Zhao, X. Printing ferromagnetic domains for untethered fast-transforming soft materials. Nature 2018, 558, 274-9.
38. Li, X.; Fan, D.; Sun, Y.; et al. Porous magnetic soft grippers for fast and gentle grasping of delicate living objects. Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, e2409173.
39. Xie, Z.; Yuan, F.; Liu, J.; et al. Octopus-inspired sensorized soft arm for environmental interaction. Sci. Robot. 2023, 8, eadh7852.
40. Zhang, Y.; Kong, D.; Shi, Y.; et al. Recent progress on underwater soft robots: adhesion, grabbing, actuating, and sensing. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 2023, 11, 1196922.
41. Nardekar, S. S.; Kim, S. J. Untethered magnetic soft robot with ultra-flexible wirelessly rechargeable micro-supercapacitor as an onboard power source. Adv. Sci. 2023, 10, e2303918.
42. Dong, Y.; Wang, L.; Xia, N.; et al. Untethered small-scale magnetic soft robot with programmable magnetization and integrated multifunctional modules. Sci. Adv. 2022, 8, eabn8932.
43. Joyee, E. B.; Pan, Y. A fully three-dimensional printed inchworm-inspired soft robot with magnetic actuation. Soft. Robot. 2019, 6, 333-45.
44. Zhu, Z.; Wang, J.; Pei, X.; et al. Blue-ringed octopus-inspired microneedle patch for robust tissue surface adhesion and active injection drug delivery. Sci. Adv. 2023, 9, eadh2213.
45. Miao, J.; Sun, S. Design, actuation, and functionalization of untethered soft magnetic robots with life-like motions: a review. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 2023, 586, 171160.
46. Karacakol, A. C.; Alapan, Y.; Demir, S. O.; Sitti, M. Data-driven design of shape-programmable magnetic soft materials. Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 2946.
47. Xavier, M. S.; Tawk, C. D.; Zolfagharian, A.; et al. Soft pneumatic actuators: a review of design, fabrication, modeling, sensing, control and applications. IEEE. Access. 2022, 10, 59442-85.
48. Wang, Y.; Gupta, U.; Parulekar, N.; Zhu, J. A soft gripper of fast speed and low energy consumption. Sci. China. Technol. Sci. 2018, 62, 31-8.
49. Zhang, Z.; Ni, X.; Wu, H.; et al. Pneumatically actuated soft gripper with bistable structures. Soft. Robot. 2022, 9, 57-71.
50. Yoder, Z.; Macari, D.; Kleinwaks, G.; Schmidt, I.; Acome, E.; Keplinger, C. A soft, fast and versatile electrohydraulic gripper with capacitive object size detection. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 33, 2209080.
51. Baghbani Kordmahale, S.; Qu, J.; Muliana, A.; Kameoka, J. A hydraulic soft microgripper for biological studies. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 21403.
52. Lee, J. H.; Chung, Y. S.; Rodrigue, H. Long shape memory alloy tendon-based soft robotic actuators and implementation as a soft gripper. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 11251.
53. Jung, Y.; Kwon, K.; Lee, J.; Ko, S. H. Untethered soft actuators for soft standalone robotics. Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 3510.
54. Li, X.; Ma, Y.; Wu, C.; et al. A fast actuated soft gripper based on shape memory alloy wires. Smart. Mater. Struct. 2024, 33, 045011.
55. Zhu, J.; Wang, X.; He, C.; Wang, H. Mechanical properties, anisotropic swelling behaviours and structures of jellyfish mesogloea. J. Mech. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 2012, 6, 63-73.
56. Motokawa, T.; Tsuchi, A. Dynamic mechanical properties of body-wall dermis in various mechanical states and their implications for the behavior of sea cucumbers. Biol. Bull. 2003, 205, 261-75.
57. Martone, P. T.; Denny, M. W. To break a coralline: mechanical constraints on the size and survival of a wave-swept seaweed. J. Exp. Biol. 2008, 211, 3433-41.
58. Liu, B.; Wang, X.; Zhang, X.; Liu, J.; Rong, L.; Ma, Y. Research status of deep-sea polymetallic nodule collection technology. JMSE 2024, 12, 744.
59. Achrai, B.; Wagner, H. D. Micro-structure and mechanical properties of the turtle carapace as a biological composite shield. Acta. Biomater. 2013, 9, 5890-902.
60. Rivlin, R. S. Large elastic deformations of isotropic materials IV. further developments of the general theory. Philos. Trans. A. Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 1948, 241, 379-97.
61. Maxwell, J. C. A treatise on electricity and magnetism. Vol. 1. Stress in the electromagnetic field. Clarendon Press, Oxford; 1873. https://archive.org/details/electricandmagne01maxwrich/page/n11/mode/2up. (accessed 11 Mar 2026).
62. Jackson, J. D. Electromagnetic momentum and stress tensor. In Classical electrodynamics, 3rd ed.; John Wiley & Sons, New York; 1999. https://ieee.li/pdf/essay/classical-electrodynamics-john-david-jackson.pdf. (accessed 11 Mar 2026).







