REFERENCES
1. Rinella ME, Lazarus JV, Ratziu V, et al; NAFLD Nomenclature consensus group. A multisociety Delphi consensus statement on new fatty liver disease nomenclature. Hepatology 2023;78:1966-86.
2. Younossi ZM, Golabi P, Paik JM, Henry A, Van Dongen C, Henry L. The global epidemiology of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH): a systematic review. Hepatology 2023;77:1335-47.
3. Charlton MR, Burns JM, Pedersen RA, Watt KD, Heimbach JK, Dierkhising RA. Frequency and outcomes of liver transplantation for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in the United States. Gastroenterology 2011;141:1249-53.
4. Sumida Y, Yoneda M. Current and future pharmacological therapies for NAFLD/NASH. J Gastroenterol 2018;53:362-76.
6. Shao T, Josephson L, Liang SH. PET/SPECT molecular probes for the diagnosis and staging of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Mol Imaging 2019;18:1536012119871455.
7. Wegrzyniak O, Rosestedt M, Eriksson O. Recent progress in the molecular imaging of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021;22:7348.
8. Trujillo MJ, Chen J, Rubin JM, Gao J. Non-invasive imaging biomarkers to assess nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a review. Clin Imaging 2021;78:22-34.
9. Pierantonelli I, Svegliati-Baroni G. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: basic pathogenetic mechanisms in the progression from NAFLD to NASH. Transplantation 2019;103:e1-13.
10. Younossi ZM, Marchesini G, Pinto-Cortez H, Petta S. Epidemiology of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: implications for liver transplantation. Transplantation 2019;103:22-7.
11. Ipsen DH, Lykkesfeldt J, Tveden-Nyborg P. Molecular mechanisms of hepatic lipid accumulation in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018;75:3313-27.
12. Milić S, Lulić D, Štimac D. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and obesity: biochemical, metabolic and clinical presentations. World J Gastroenterol 2014;20:9330-7.
13. Ekstedt M, Franzén LE, Mathiesen UL, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with NAFLD and elevated liver enzymes. Hepatology 2006;44:865-73.
14. Singh S, Allen AM, Wang Z, Prokop LJ, Murad MH, Loomba R. Fibrosis progression in nonalcoholic fatty liver vs nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of paired-biopsy studies. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015;13:643-54.
15. Ekstedt M, Hagström H, Nasr P, et al. Fibrosis stage is the strongest predictor for disease-specific mortality in NAFLD after up to 33 years of follow-up. Hepatology 2015;61:1547-54.
16. Yatsuji S, Hashimoto E, Tobari M, Taniai M, Tokushige K, Shiratori K. Clinical features and outcomes of cirrhosis due to
17. Iqbal U, Perumpail BJ, Akhtar D, Kim D, Ahmed A. The epidemiology, risk profiling and diagnostic challenges of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Medicines 2019;6:41.
18. Verma S, Jensen D, Hart J, Mohanty SR. Predictive value of ALT levels for non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and advanced fibrosis in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Liver Int 2013;33:1398-405.
19. Cusi K, Chang Z, Harrison S, et al. Limited value of plasma cytokeratin-18 as a biomarker for NASH and fibrosis in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J Hepatol 2014;60:167-74.
20. Feldstein AE, Wieckowska A, Lopez AR, Liu YC, Zein NN, McCullough AJ. Cytokeratin-18 fragment levels as noninvasive biomarkers for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: a multicenter validation study. Hepatology 2009;50:1072-8.
21. Kazankov K, Barrera F, Møller HJ, et al. The macrophage activation marker sCD163 is associated with morphological disease stages in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Liver Int 2016;36:1549-57.
22. Nielsen MJ, Nedergaard AF, Sun S, et al. The neo-epitope specific PRO-C3 ELISA measures true formation of type III collagen associated with liver and muscle parameters. Am J Transl Res 2013;5:303-15.
23. Tanwar S, Trembling PM, Guha IN, et al. Validation of terminal peptide of procollagen III for the detection and assessment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Hepatology 2013;57:103-11.
25. Lin ZH, Xin YN, Dong QJ, et al. Performance of the aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index for the staging of hepatitis
26. Rinella ME, Loomba R, Caldwell SH, et al. Controversies in the diagnosis and management of NAFLD and NASH. Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014;10:219-27.
27. Shah AG, Lydecker A, Murray K, Tetri BN, Contos MJ, Sanyal AJ. Nash Clinical Research Network. Comparison of noninvasive markers of fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009;7:1104-12.
28. Contreras D, González-Rocha A, Clark P, Barquera S, Denova-Gutiérrez E. Diagnostic accuracy of blood biomarkers and non-invasive scores for the diagnosis of NAFLD and NASH: systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Hepatol 2023;28:100873.
29. López IC, Aroca FG, Bernal MDF, et al. Utility of the ELF test for detecting steatohepatitis in morbid obese patients with suspicion of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Obes Surg 2017;27:2347-53.
30. Ratziu V, Massard J, Charlotte F, et al; LIDO Study Group; CYTOL study group. Diagnostic value of biochemical markers (FibroTest-FibroSURE) for the prediction of liver fibrosis in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. BMC Gastroenterol 2006;6:6.
31. Poynard T, Munteanu M, Charlotte F, et al; FLIP Consortium; the FibroFrance-CPAM Group; the FibroFrance-Obese Group. Diagnostic performance of a new noninvasive test for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis using a simplified histological reference. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018;30:569-77.
32. Guajardo-Salinas GE, Hilmy A. Prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and utility of FIBROspect II to detect liver fibrosis in morbidly obese Hispano-American patients undergoing gastric bypass. Obes Surg 2010;20:1647-53.
33. Iruarrizaga-Lejarreta M, Martínez-Arranz I, Morrison M, et al. Targeting the NAFLD metabolome and the shaping of precision medicine for patients with NASH. J Hepatol 2018;68:S362-3.
34. Mayo R, Crespo J, Martínez-Arranz I, et al. Metabolomic-based noninvasive serum test to diagnose nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: results from discovery and validation cohorts. Hepatol Commun 2018;2:807-20.
35. Poynard T, Ratziu V, Charlotte F, et al; LIDO Study Group; CYTOL study group. Diagnostic value of biochemical markers (NashTest) for the prediction of non alcoholo steato hepatitis in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. BMC Gastroenterol 2006;6:34.
36. Dowman JK, Tomlinson JW, Newsome PN. Systematic review: the diagnosis and staging of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and
37. Adams LA, Feldstein AE. Non-invasive diagnosis of nonalcoholic fatty liver and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. J Dig Dis 2011;12:10-6.
38. Marañón P, Fernández-García CE, Isaza SC, et al. Bone morphogenetic protein 2 is a new molecular target linked to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease with potential value as non-invasive screening tool. Biomark Res 2022;10:35.
39. Neuschwander-Tetri BA, Caldwell SH. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: summary of an AASLD Single Topic Conference. Hepatology 2003;37:1202-19.
40. Sorrentino P, Tarantino G, Conca P, et al. Silent non-alcoholic fatty liver disease-a clinical-histological study. J Hepatol 2004;41:751-7.
41. Fracanzani AL, Valenti L, Bugianesi E, et al. Risk of severe liver disease in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease with normal aminotransferase levels: a role for insulin resistance and diabetes. Hepatology 2008;48:792-8.
42. Xia MF, Yki-Järvinen H, Bian H, et al. Influence of ethnicity on the accuracy of non-invasive scores predicting non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. PLoS One 2016;11:e0160526.
43. Eddowes PJ, Sasso M, Allison M, et al. Accuracy of fibroscan controlled attenuation parameter and liver stiffness measurement in assessing steatosis and fibrosis in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology 2019;156:1717-30.
44. Jang JK, Lee ES, Seo JW, et al. Two-dimensional shear-wave elastography and us attenuation imaging for nonalcoholic steatohepatitis diagnosis: a cross-sectional, multicenter study. Radiology 2022;305:118-26.
45. Thiagarajan P, Bawden SJ, Aithal GP. Metabolic imaging in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: applications of magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Clin Med 2021;10:632.
46. Abrigo JM, Shen J, Wong VWS, et al. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease: spectral patterns observed from an in vivo phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. J Hepatol 2014;60:809-15.
47. Abdelqader A, Goud A, Fleisher AS. Extreme esophageal hyperkeratosis presenting as an arachnoid mass. Am J Gastroenterol 2016;111:599.
48. Allen AM, Shah VH, Therneau TM, et al. Multiparametric magnetic resonance elastography improves the detection of NASH regression following bariatric surgery. Hepatol Commun 2020;4:185-92.
49. Gallego-Durán R, Cerro-Salido P, Gomez-Gonzalez E, et al. Imaging biomarkers for steatohepatitis and fibrosis detection in
50. Andersson A, Kelly M, Imajo K, et al. Clinical utility of magnetic resonance imaging biomarkers for identifying nonalcoholic steatohepatitis patients at high risk of progression: a multicenter pooled data and meta-analysis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2022;20:2451-61.e3.
51. Papadopoulos V, Baraldi M, Guilarte TR, et al. Translocator protein (18kDa): new nomenclature for the peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor based on its structure and molecular function. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2006;27:402-9.
52. Masdeu JC, Pascual B, Fujita M. Imaging neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative disorders. J Nucl Med 2022;63:45S-52S.
53. Xie L, Yui J, Hatori A, et al. Translocator protein (18 kDa), a potential molecular imaging biomarker for non-invasively distinguishing non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J Hepatol 2012;57:1076-82.
54. Li Y, Chen L, Li L, et al. Cholesterol-binding translocator protein TSPO regulates steatosis and bile acid synthesis in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. iScience 2021;24:102457.
55. Masarone M, Rosato V, Dallio M, et al. Role of oxidative stress in pathophysiology of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Oxid Med Cell Longev 2018;2018:9547613.
56. Rokugawa T, Uehara T, Higaki Y, et al. Potential of 99mTc-MIBI SPECT imaging for evaluating non-alcoholic steatohepatitis induced by methionine-choline-deficient diet in mice. EJNMMI Res 2014;4:57.
57. Mather KJ, DeGrado TR. Imaging of myocardial fatty acid oxidation. Biochim Biophys Acta 2016;1861:1535-43.
59. Fukumoto M, Masuda K, Ogawa Y, et al. In vivo imaging of hepatic fatty acid metabolism in patients with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis using semiquantative 123I-BMIPP liver scan. Hepatol Res 2005;33:105-9.
60. Onishi S, Saibara T. In vivo imaging of hepatic fatty acid metabolism in patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis using semiquantitative 123I-labeled branched-chain fatty acid analog. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006;21:S76-8.
61. Iozzo P, Turpeinen AK, Takala T, et al. Defective liver disposal of free fatty acids in patients with impaired glucose tolerance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:3496-502.
62. Iozzo P, Bucci M, Roivainen A, et al. Fatty acid metabolism in the liver, measured by positron emission tomography, is increased in obese individuals. Gastroenterology 2010;139:846-56.e6.
63. Abele JT, Fung CI. Effect of hepatic steatosis on liver FDG uptake measured in mean standard uptake values. Radiology 2010;254:917-24.
64. Lin CY, Lin WY, Lin CC, Shih CM, Jeng LB, Kao CH. The negative impact of fatty liver on maximum standard uptake value of liver on FDG PET. Clin Imaging 2011;35:437-41.
65. Abikhzer G, Alabed YZ, Azoulay L, Assayag J, Rush C. Altered hepatic metabolic activity in patients with hepatic steatosis on FDG PET/CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2011;196:176-80.
66. Bural GG, Torigian DA, Burke A, et al. Quantitative assessment of the hepatic metabolic volume product in patients with diffuse hepatic steatosis and normal controls through use of FDG-PET and MR imaging: a novel concept. Mol Imaging Biol 2010;12:233-9.
67. Keramida G, Potts J, Bush J, Verma S, Dizdarevic S, Peters AM. Accumulation of 18F-FDG in the liver in hepatic steatosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2014;203:643-8.
68. Wang G, Corwin MT, Olson KA, Badawi RD, Sarkar S. Dynamic PET of human liver inflammation: impact of kinetic modeling with optimization-derived dual-blood input function. Phys Med Biol 2018;63:155004.
69. Sarkar S, Matsukuma KE, Spencer B, et al. Dynamic positron emission tomography/computed tomography imaging correlate of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2021;19:2441-3.
70. Diehl AM. Nonalcoholic steatosis and steatohepatitis IV. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease abnormalities in macrophage function and cytokines. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2002;282:G1-5.
71. Duman DG, Dede F, Akin H, et al. Colloid scintigraphy in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: a conventional diagnostic method for an emerging disease. Nucl Med Commun 2006;27:387-93.
72. Sodee DB, Velchic MG, Noto RB, Reilley J, Alavi A. Gastrointestinal system. In: Early PJ, Sodee DB, editors. Principles and practice of nuclear medicine. 2nd ed. St Louis, MO, USA: Mosby; 1995.
73. Subramanian G, McAfee JG, Mehter A, et al. ˆ<99m>Tc-stannous phytate: a new in vivo colloid for imaging the reticuloendothelial system. J Nucl Med 1973;14:459. (in Japanese). Available from: https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1570854175563339136. [Last accessed on 10 Aug 2024]
74. Kikuchi M, Tomita K, Nakahara T, et al. Utility of quantitative 99mTc-phytate scintigraphy to diagnose early-stage non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 2009;44:229-36.
75. Arzoumanian A, Rosenthall L, Seto H. Clinical comparison of 99mTc-labeled preformed phytate colloid and sulfur colloid: concise communication. J Nucl Med 1977;18:118-120.
76. Doughton JA, Hofman MS, Eu P, Hicks RJ, Williams S. A first-in-human study of 68Ga-nanocolloid PET/CT sentinel lymph node imaging in prostate cancer demonstrates aberrant lymphatic drainage pathways. J Nucl Med 2018;59:1837-42.
77. Toi M, Atiqur Rahman M, Bando H, Chow LW. Thymidine phosphorylase (platelet-derived endothelial-cell growth factor) in cancer biology and treatment. Lancet Oncol 2005;6:158-66.
78. Yue H, Belcher AM, Bicak A, Li W. 1211-P: the mechanistic role of thymidine phosphorylase in the development of obesity. Diabetes 2021;70:1211-P.
79. Higashikawa K, Horiguchi S, Tarisawa M, et al. Preclinical investigation of potential use of thymidine phosphorylase-targeting tracer for diagnosis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Nucl Med Biol 2020;82-3:25-32.
80. Harrison SA, Bedossa P, Guy CD, et al; MAESTRO-NASH Investigators. A phase 3, randomized, controlled trial of resmetirom in NASH with liver fibrosis. N Engl J Med 2024;390:497-509.
81. Harrison SA, Allen AM, Dubourg J, Noureddin M, Alkhouri N. Challenges and opportunities in NASH drug development. Nat Med 2023;29:562-73.
83. Newsome PN, Sasso M, Deeks JJ, et al. FibroScan-AST (FAST) score for the non-invasive identification of patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis with significant activity and fibrosis: a prospective derivation and global validation study. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020;5:362-73.
84. Noureddin M, Truong E, Gornbein JA, et al. MRI-based (MAST) score accurately identifies patients with NASH and significant fibrosis. J Hepatol 2022;76:781-7.
85. Jung J, Loomba RR, Imajo K, et al. MRE combined with FIB-4 (MEFIB) index in detection of candidates for pharmacological treatment of NASH-related fibrosis. Gut 2021;70:1946-53.
86. Tavaglione F, Jamialahmadi O, De Vincentis A, et al. Development and validation of a score for fibrotic nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2023;21:1523-32.e1.
87. Harrison SA, Ratziu V, Magnanensi J, et al. NIS2+TM, an optimisation of the blood-based biomarker NIS4® technology for the detection of at-risk NASH: a prospective derivation and validation study. J Hepatol 2023;79:758-67.