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Figure 3. Liquid-biopsy sampling and isolation of exosomes/small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), with representative applications in glioblastoma and lung cancer. (A) Overview of commonly used EV isolation strategies from clinical blood samples, including differential ultracentrifugation, polymer-based precipitation, ultrafiltration, and immunoaffinity capture. Reprinted with permission^[116]. Copyright 2022, Frontiers. (B) Representative glioblastoma study using cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-derived EV subfractions for liquid biopsy and immunomodulatory analysis. Reprinted with permission^[117]. Copyright 2020, Springer Nature. (C) Representative lung cancer study using serum-derived exosomes for morphological validation and immune-related biomarker analysis, including exosomal PD-L1 evaluation and correlation with tumor immune features and clinical outcomes. Reprinted with permission^[118]. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. CSF: Cerebrospinal fluid; EVs: extracellular vesicles; PD-L1: programmed death-ligand 1.