fig2

Figure 2. Chronic issues at the electrode and cell levels. (A) Schematic illustration of Li dendrite growth and the resulting internal short-circuit caused by electrochemical and structural degradation of the anode and/or cathode. Reproduced with permission^[50]. (B) Three stages of the thermal runaway process. Stage 1: Onset of overheating, where the battery shifts from a normal to an abnormal state and internal temperature begins to rise. Stage 2: Heat accumulation and gas release, with rapid temperature increase and exothermic reactions. Stage 3: Combustion and explosion, where flammable electrolyte ignites, leading to fires and possible explosions. Reproduced with permission^[57].