fig7

Figure 7. Hydrogel-exosome synergy for enhanced bone regeneration. The hydrogel scaffold, designed with a 3D microporous structure, serves as a carrier for bioactive molecules and cells. It is loaded with growth factors such as BMP-2, bFGF, and stem cells to stimulate bone healing. Exosomes are encapsulated within the hydrogel, carrying bioactive cargos including IL-10, miRNA, and PDGFA to target cells in a controlled manner to support osteoblast differentiation and promote bone matrix formation. Upon release, exosomes interact with macrophages, guiding their polarization toward the M2 phenotype, and with osteoblasts to promote osteogenesis and angiogenesis through VEGF and BMP signaling. Additionally, exosomes aid in restoring osteocalcin expression, and these exosome-driven pathways mitigate the negative impact of AGEs (advanced glycation end-products) on bone healing.