REFERENCES
1. Section of Precision Medical of Chinese Society of Cardiology of Chinese Medical Association, Editorial Board of Chinese Journal of Cardiology, Working Group on Adult Myocarditis. Chinese expert consensus statement on clinical diagnosis and treatment of fulminant myocarditis in adults. Chin J Cardiovasc Dis. 2017;45:742-52.
2. Chinese Society of Cardiology, Chinese Medical Association; Editorial Board of Chinese Journal of Cardiology. Chinese guideline on the diagnosis and treatment of fulminant myocarditis in adults. Chin J Cardiovasc Dis. 2024;52:10-33.
3. Jiang J, Shu H, Wang DW, et al.; Chinese Society of Cardiology. Chinese Society of Cardiology guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of adult fulminant myocarditis. Sci China Life Sci. 2024;67:913-39.
4. McDonagh TA, Metra M, Adamo M, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2021 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: developed by the Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) With the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur Heart J. 2021;42:3599-726.
5. Heidenreich PA, Bozkurt B, Aguilar D, et al.; ACC/AHA Joint Committee Members. 2022 AHA/ACC/HFSA guideline for the management of heart failure: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on clinical practice guidelines. Circulation. 2022;145:e895-e1032.
6. Kytö V, Saraste A, Voipio-Pulkki LM, Saukko P. Incidence of fatal myocarditis: a population-based study in Finland. Am J Epidemiol. 2007;165:570-4.
7. Lee CH, Tsai WC, Hsu CH, Liu PY, Lin LJ, Chen JH. Predictive factors of a fulminant course in acute myocarditis. Int J Cardiol. 2006;109:142-5.
8. Dai H, Lotan D, Much AA, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of myocarditis and cardiomyopathy, 1990-2017. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2021;8:610989.
9. McCarthy RE 3rd, Boehmer JP, Hruban RH, et al. Long-term outcome of fulminant myocarditis as compared with acute (nonfulminant) myocarditis. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:690-5.
10. Sawamura A, Okumura T, Ito M, et al.; CHANGE PUMP Investigators. Prognostic value of electrocardiography in patients with fulminant myocarditis supported by percutaneous venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation- analysis from the CHANGE PUMP study. Circ J. 2018;82:2089-95.
11. Hung Y, Lin WH, Lin CS, et al. The prognostic role of QTc interval in acute myocarditis. Acta Cardiol Sin. 2016;32:223-30.
12. Kanaoka K, Onoue K, Terasaki S, et al.; Japanese Registry of Fulminant Myocarditis Investigators. features and outcomes of histologically proven myocarditis with fulminant presentation. Circulation. 2022;146:1425-33.
13. Liu L, Yang X, Gu Y, Jiang T, Xu J, Xu M. Predictive value of the age, creatinine, and ejection fraction (ACEF) score in patients with acute fulminant myocarditis. Front Physiol. 2021;12:596548.
14. Hang W, Chen C, Seubert JM, Wang DW. Fulminant myocarditis: a comprehensive review from etiology to treatments and outcomes. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2020;5:287.
15. Li H, Zhang M, Zhao Q, et al. Self-recruited neutrophils trigger over-activated innate immune response and phenotypic change of cardiomyocytes in fulminant viral myocarditis. Cell Discov. 2023;9:103.
16. Maisch B, Portig I, Ristic A, Hufnagel G, Pankuweit S. Definition of inflammatory cardiomyopathy (myocarditis): on the way to consensus. A status report. Herz. 2000;25:200-9.
17. Maisch B, Ruppert V, Pankuweit S. Management of fulminant myocarditis: a diagnosis in search of its etiology but with therapeutic options. Curr Heart Fail Rep. 2014;11:166-77.
18. Ammirati E, Veronese G, Brambatti M, et al. Fulminant versus acute nonfulminant myocarditis in patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74:299-311.
19. Kociol RD, Cooper LT, Fang JC, et al.; American Heart Association Heart Failure and Transplantation Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology. Recognition and initial management of fulminant myocarditis: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020;141:e69-92.
20. Zhou N, Zhao Y, Jiang J, et al. Impact of mechanical circulatory support and immunomodulation therapy on outcome of patients with fulminant myocarditis: Chinese registry of fulminant myocarditis. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2021;6:350.
21. Caforio AL, Calabrese F, Angelini A, et al. A prospective study of biopsy-proven myocarditis: prognostic relevance of clinical and aetiopathogenetic features at diagnosis. Eur Heart J. 2007;28:1326-33.
22. JCS Joint Working Group. Guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of myocarditis (JCS 2009): digest version. Circ J. 2011;75:734-43.
23. Liu C, Wang Z, Chen K, et al. The absolute and relative changes in high-sensitivity cardiac troponin I are associated with the in-hospital mortality of patients with fulminant myocarditis. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2021;21:571.
24. Palaka E, Grandy S, Darlington O, McEwan P, van Doornewaard A. Associations between serum potassium and adverse clinical outcomes: a systematic literature review. Int J Clin Pract. 2020;74:e13421.
25. Guglin M, Zucker MJ, Bazan VM, et al. Venoarterial ECMO for adults: JACC Scientific Expert Panel. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73:698-716.
26. Wang J, He M, Li H, et al. Soluble ST2 is a sensitive and specific biomarker for fulminant myocarditis. J Am Heart Assoc. 2022;11:e024417.
28. Dai MY, Yan YC, Wang LY, Zhao CX, Wang DW, Jiang JG. Characteristics of electrocardiogram findings in fulminant myocarditis. J Cardiovasc Dev Dis. 2023;10:280.
29. Zuo H, Li R, Ma F, et al. Temporal echocardiography findings in patients with fulminant myocarditis: beyond ejection fraction decline. Front Med. 2020;14:284-92.
30. Ammirati E, Veronese G, Cipriani M, et al. Acute and fulminant myocarditis: a pragmatic clinical approach to diagnosis and treatment. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2018;20:114.
31. Zuo H, Li H, Li R, et al. Myocardial strain features by 2D-STE during the course of fulminant myocarditis: correlation with characteristics by CMR and clinical implications. Medicine. 2021;100:e25050.
32. Ferreira VM, Schulz-Menger J, Holmvang G, et al. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in nonischemic myocardial inflammation: expert recommendations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;72:3158-76.
33. Friedrich MG, Sechtem U, Schulz-Menger J, et al.; International Consensus Group on Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance in Myocarditis. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in myocarditis: a JACC white paper. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;53:1475-87.
34. Peretto G, Busnardo E, Ferro P, et al. Clinical applications of FDG-PET scan in arrhythmic myocarditis. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2022;15:1771-80.
35. Archibald SJ, Holland JP, Korde A, Martins AF, Shuhendler AJ, Scott PJH. Combining nuclear medicine with other modalities: future prospect for multimodality imaging. Mol Imaging. 2024;23:15353508241245265.
36. Li C, Zhao M, Xiao L, et al. Prognostic value of elevated levels of plasma N-acetylneuraminic acid in patients with heart failure. Circ Heart Fail. 2021;14:e008459.
37. Li S, Xu S, Li C, et al. A life support-based comprehensive treatment regimen dramatically lowers the in-hospital mortality of patients with fulminant myocarditis: a multiple center study. Sci China Life Sci. 2019;62:369-80.
38. Camm AJ, Lip GY, De Caterina R, et al.; ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG). 2012 focused update of the ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation: an update of the 2010 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation. Developed with the special contribution of the European Heart Rhythm Association. Eur Heart J. 2012;33:2719-47.
39. Thrombosis and Hemostasis Group, Hematology Society of Chinese Medical Association. Consensus of Chinese experts on diagnosis of disseminated intravascular coagulation (version 2017). Chin J Hematol. 2017;38:361-3.
40. Heradstveit BE, Guttormsen AB, Langørgen J, et al. Capillary leakage in post-cardiac arrest survivors during therapeutic hypothermia - a prospective, randomised study. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2010;18:29.
41. Pieri M, Agracheva N, Fumagalli L, et al. Infections occurring in adult patients receiving mechanical circulatory support: the two-year experience of an Italian National Referral Tertiary Care Center. Med Intensiva. 2013;37:468-75.
42. Aslam S, Cowger J, Shah P, et al. The International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT): 2024 infection definitions for durable and acute mechanical circulatory support devices. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2024;43:1039-50.
43. Tschöpe C, Ammirati E, Bozkurt B, et al. Myocarditis and inflammatory cardiomyopathy: current evidence and future directions. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2021;18:169-93.
44. Schwaab B, Kindermann I, Bjarnason-Wehrens B, et al. Viral myocarditis: a forbidden indication for cardiac rehabilitation? Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2022;29:2064-8.
45. Ammirati E, Veronese G, Bottiroli M, et al. Update on acute myocarditis. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2021;31:370-9.
46. Kerneis M, Ammirati E, Delmas C, et al. Clinical management of acute myocarditis in daily practice: an expert practical view. Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care. 2025;14:420-31.
47. Drazner MH, Bozkurt B, Cooper LT, et al.; Writing Committee. 2024 ACC expert consensus decision pathway on strategies and criteria for the diagnosis and management of myocarditis: a report of the American College of Cardiology Solution Set Oversight Committee. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2025;85:391-431.
48. Schulz-Menger J, Collini V, Gröschel J, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2025 ESC Guidelines for the management of myocarditis and pericarditis. Eur Heart J. 2025;46:3952-4041.
49. D’Ettore N, Eghbalzadeh K, Oezkur M, Bertoldi LF, Bossard M, Pappalardo F. Diagnosis and management of patients with fulminant myocarditis. Eur Heart J Suppl. 2025;27:iv23-30.
50. Zhou Z, Zhang M, Zhao C, et al. Epoxyeicosatrienoic acids prevent cardiac dysfunction in viral myocarditis via interferon type I signaling. Circ Res. 2023;133:772-88.
51. Zhuang Y, Zhang Z, Li H, et al. Soluble ST2 drives fulminant myocarditis progression via the IGF2R-YY1 mitochondrial axis. Eur Heart J. 2026;47:5572-89.
52. He W, Wu J, Wang D, et al. Plasma proteomics identifies S100A8/A9 as a novel biomarker and therapeutic target for fulminant myocarditis. J Adv Res. 2026;81:717-30.
53. Jiang Y, Wang Z, Chen P, et al. Engineered neutrophil membrane nanosystem for targeted siRNA therapy in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. J Nanobiotechnology. 2025;24:99.
54. Jiang JG, Liu C, Cui GL, et al. Long term prognosis of fulminant myocarditis and predictors related to impaired cardiac function post discharge. Chin J Cardiovasc Dis. 2022;50:263-9.
55. He W, Cui G, Chen J, et al. The efficacy and safety of hydroxychloroquine in patients with chronic inflammatory cardiomyopathy: a multicenter randomized study (HYPIC trial). BMC Med. 2025;23:467.
56. Artico J, Shiwani H, Moon JC, et al. Myocardial involvement after hospitalization for COVID-19 complicated by troponin elevation: a prospective, multicenter, observational study. Circulation. 2023;147:364-74.
57. Ukena C, Kindermann M, Mahfoud F, et al. Diagnostic and prognostic validity of different biomarkers in patients with suspected myocarditis. Clin Res Cardiol. 2014;103:743-51.
58. Ekström K, Lehtonen J, Kandolin R, Räisänen-Sokolowski A, Salmenkivi K, Kupari M. Long-term outcome and its predictors in giant cell myocarditis. Eur J Heart Fail. 2016;18:1452-8.
59. Saracoglu A, Fawzy I, Saracoglu KT, Abdallah BM, Arif M, Schmidt M. Point of care guided coagulation management in adult patients on ECMO: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Crit Care. 2024;83:154830.
60. Zhu Y, Lan MJ, Liang JS, et al. Assessing venous thrombotic risks in extracorporeal membrane oxygenation-supported patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2024;30:10760296241279293.
61. Cain BS, Meldrum DR, Dinarello CA, et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1beta synergistically depress human myocardial function. Crit Care Med. 1999;27:1309-18.
62. Wang ZH, Liao YH, Yuan J, et al. Continued elevation of plasma IL-4 and IL-17 predicts the progression from VMC to DCM. Dis Markers. 2020;2020:9385472.
63. Coronado MJ, Bruno KA, Blauwet LA, et al. Elevated sera sST2 is associated with heart failure in men ≤ 50 years old with myocarditis. J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8:e008968.
64. Hou W, Shi T, Li Y, Li W, Xu M, Peng F. Soluble suppression of tumorigenicity 2 associated with fulminant myocarditis in children: a retrospective observational study. Medicine. 2023;102:e34784.
65. Daubin C, Valette X, Thiollière F, et al.; BPCTrea Study Group. Procalcitonin algorithm to guide initial antibiotic therapy in acute exacerbations of COPD admitted to the ICU: a randomized multicenter study. Intensive Care Med. 2018;44:428-37.
66. Huang DT, Yealy DM, Filbin MR, et al.; ProACT Investigators. Procalcitonin-guided use of antibiotics for lower respiratory tract infection. N Engl J Med. 2018;379:236-49.
67. Kyriazopoulou E, Liaskou-Antoniou L, Adamis G, et al. Procalcitonin to reduce long-term infection-associated adverse events in sepsis. A randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;203:202-10.
68. den Uil CA, Van Mieghem NM, Bastos MB, et al. Primary intra-aortic balloon support versus inotropes for decompensated heart failure and low output: a randomised trial. EuroIntervention. 2019;15:586-93.
69. Deppe AC, Weber C, Liakopoulos OJ, et al. Preoperative intra-aortic balloon pump use in high-risk patients prior to coronary artery bypass graft surgery decreases the risk for morbidity and mortality-a meta-analysis of 9,212 patients. J Card Surg. 2017;32:177-85.
70. Chu S, Sun P, Zhang Y, et al. Intra-aortic balloon pump on in-hospital outcomes of cardiogenic shock: findings from a nationwide registry, China. ESC Heart Fail. 2021;8:3286-94.
71. Duan J, Shi Y, Luo G, Peng Y, Duan B, Zhang Z. Short-term efficacy and safety of different mechanical hemodynamic support devices for cardiogenic shock or high-risk pci: a network meta-analysis of thirty-seven trials. Shock. 2021;55:5-13.
72. Benenati S, Toma M, Canale C, et al. Mechanical circulatory support in patients with cardiogenic shock not secondary to cardiotomy: a network meta-analysis. Heart Fail Rev. 2022;27:927-34.
73. Low CJW, Ling RR, Lau MPXL, et al. Mechanical circulatory support for cardiogenic shock: a network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and propensity score-matched studies. Intensive Care Med. 2024;50:209-21.
74. Schrage B, Becher PM, Bernhardt A, et al. Left ventricular unloading is associated with lower mortality in patients with cardiogenic shock treated with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation: results from an international, multicenter cohort study. Circulation. 2020;142:2095-106.
75. Lu C, Qin F, Yan Y, Liu T, Li J, Chen H. Immunosuppressive treatment for myocarditis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Cardiovasc Med. 2016;17:631-7.
76. Aziz KU, Patel N, Sadullah T, Tasneem H, Thawerani H, Talpur S. Acute viral myocarditis: role of immunosuppression: a prospective randomised study. Cardiol Young. 2010;20:509-15.
77. Kanyo I, An A, Haque K, Nellis ME. Comparative effectiveness of intravenous immunoglobulin vs steroids in the treatment of pediatric acute (Non-COVID) myocarditis: a pediatric health information systems database study. J Pediatr. 2026;294:115065.
78. Huang X, Sun Y, Su G, Li Y, Shuai X. Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for acute myocarditis in children and adults. Int Heart J. 2019;60:359-65.
79. Pan B, Sun P, Pei R, Lin F, Cao H. Efficacy of IVIG therapy for patients with sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Transl Med. 2023;21:765.
80. Kishimoto C, Shioji K, Hashimoto T, et al. Therapy with immunoglobulin in patients with acute myocarditis and cardiomyopathy: analysis of leukocyte balance. Heart Vessels. 2014;29:336-42.
81. Lee JS, Lee MS, Park Y, Lee J, Joo EJ, Eom JS. Clinical effectiveness of intravenous peramivir versus oseltamivir for the treatment of influenza in hospitalized patients. Infect Drug Resist. 2020;13:1479-84.
82. Lamontagne F, Meade MO, Hébert PC, et al.; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. Higher versus lower blood pressure targets for vasopressor therapy in shock: a multicentre pilot randomized controlled trial. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42:542-50.
83. Lamontagne F, Richards-Belle A, Thomas K, et al.; 65 trial investigators. Effect of reduced exposure to vasopressors on 90-day mortality in older critically Ill patients with vasodilatory hypotension: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020;323:938-49.
84. Asfar P, Meziani F, Hamel JF, et al.; SEPSISPAM Investigators. High versus low blood-pressure target in patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2014;370:1583-93.
85. Vally S, Ferdynus C, Persichini R, et al. Impact of levosimendan on weaning from peripheral venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in intensive care unit. Ann Intensive Care. 2019;9:24.
86. Kim M, Seong SW, Song PS, et al. Inodilators may improve the in-hospital mortality of patients with cardiogenic shock undergoing veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. J Clin Med. 2022;11:4958.
87. Pahuja M, Mony S, Adegbala O, et al. Incidence and outcomes of gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with percutaneous mechanical circulatory support devices. Am J Cardiol. 2022;174:76-83.
88. Hickman AW, Lonardo NW, Mone MC, et al. Acid suppression to prevent gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with ventricular assist devices. J Surg Res. 2019;234:96-102.
89. Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Intensive Care Med. 2021;47:1181-247.
90. Xie Y, Chen J, Xu J, et al. Early goal-directed renal replacement therapy in acute decompensated heart failure patients with cardiorenal syndrome. Blood Purif. 2022;51:251-9.
91. Glikson M, Nielsen JC, Kronborg MB, et al. 2021 ESC Guidelines on cardiac pacing and cardiac resynchronization therapy. Europace. 2022;24:71-164.
92. Wang J, Kong F, Wang Y, et al. Pacing therapy for immune checkpoint inhibitors-associated atrioventricular block: a single-center cohort study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2025;25:319.
93. Patriki D, Baltensperger N, Berg J, et al. A prospective pilot study to identify a myocarditis cohort who may safely resume sports activities 3 months after diagnosis. J Cardiovasc Transl Res. 2021;14:670-3.
94. Maron BJ, Udelson JE, Bonow RO, et al. Eligibility and disqualification recommendations for competitive athletes with cardiovascular abnormalities: task force 3: hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy and other cardiomyopathies, and myocarditis: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association and American College of Cardiology. Circulation. 2015;132:e273-80.
95. Berg J, Kottwitz J, Baltensperger N, et al. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in myocarditis reveals persistent disease activity despite normalization of cardiac enzymes and inflammatory parameters at 3-month follow-up. Circ Heart Fail. 2017;10:e004262.
96. Morimoto R, Unno K, Fujita N, et al. Prospective analysis of immunosuppressive therapy in cardiac sarcoidosis with fluorodeoxyglucose myocardial accumulation: the PRESTIGE study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2024;17:45-58.
97. Kandolin R, Lehtonen J, Salmenkivi K, Räisänen-Sokolowski A, Lommi J, Kupari M. Diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of giant-cell myocarditis in the era of combined immunosuppression. Circ Heart Fail. 2013;6:15-22.
98. Brambatti M, Matassini MV, Adler ED, Klingel K, Camici PG, Ammirati E. Eosinophilic myocarditis: characteristics, treatment, and outcomes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70:2363-75.
99. Frustaci A, Russo MA, Chimenti C. Randomized study on the efficacy of immunosuppressive therapy in patients with virus-negative inflammatory cardiomyopathy: the TIMIC study. Eur Heart J. 2009;30:1995-2002.
100. Escher F, Kühl U, Lassner D, et al. Long-term outcome of patients with virus-negative chronic myocarditis or inflammatory cardiomyopathy after immunosuppressive therapy. Clin Res Cardiol. 2016;105:1011-20.




