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From: The interplay between lifestyle and cardiovascular aging: mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities
Figure 2. Oxidative stress-induced endothelial dysfunction increases cardiovascular disease risk. Oxidative stress elevates ROS levels, causes endothelial dysfunction, damages mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, gradually reduces endogenous antioxidant defenses, and impairs vasodilator function. Created in BioRender Xu C (2025) https://BioRender.com/pad4sgo. ROS: Reactive oxygen species; GPX: glutathione peroxidase; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; ADP: adenosine diphosphate; GR: glutathione reductase; NADPH: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; GSSG: glutathione disulfide; GSH: glutathione.
