fig1

Figure 1. Efficient ion transport in confined channels and applications. (A-C) High-efficiency ion transport in biological ion channels and relevant physiological function. This figure is quoted with permission from the authors^[5-7]; (D-F) Ion transport through confined artificial channels and their applications in energy conversion, sensing, and signal transduction. This figure is quoted with permission from the authors^[6,9,10]; (G) Achieving performance comparable to biological channels requires re-examining ion transport mechanisms in confined spaces.