fig4

Figure 4. Engineering entry points before and after EV isolation. Producer-cell and raw-material design establishes the manufacturing system; pre-isolation engineering modifies cargo recruitment and EV biogenesis; isolation and purification remove process-related impurities; and post-isolation engineering loads cargo or functionalizes the EV surface. Created with BioRender. EV: Extracellular vesicle; TFF: tangential flow filtration; SEC: size-exclusion chromatography; CMC: chemistry, manufacturing and controls.