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Figure 4. Potential applications of PDEVs in dental diseases. PDEVs may support the management of dental caries, pulp diseases, periodontitis, and peri-implantitis through antimicrobial effects, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory actions, and tissue-regenerative promotion. Created with BioRender.com and subsequently modified and finalised using Adobe Illustrator. https://BioRender.com/r41dref. PDEVs: Plant-derived extracellular vesicles.