fig3

Figure 3. Biological functions of PDEVs. PDEVs modulate the microbiota and promote anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory, and tissue-regenerative responses. Arrows indicate increases or decreases. Created with BioRender.com and subsequently modified and finalised using Adobe Illustrator. https://BioRender.com/y3bwt5a. IL: Interleukin; NLRP3: NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3; PDEVs: plant-derived extracellular vesicles; P. gingivalis: Porphyromonas gingivalis; TNF-α: tumour necrosis factor-alpha.