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Figure 1. Preparation, isolation, and purification of PDEVs. Step 1 illustrates: (i) mechanical disruption followed by low-speed centrifugation; (ii) enzyme-assisted extraction involving tissue slicing, enzymatic digestion, filtration, and clarification centrifugation; and (iii) AWF collection by vacuum infiltration-centrifugation. Step 2 shows: (i) differential UC; (ii) density-GUC; (iii) polymer-based precipitation; (iv) UF; (v) SEC; and (vi) immunoaffinity capture. Created with BioRender.com and subsequently modified and finalised using Adobe Illustrator. https://BioRender.com/bygh8tl. AWF: Apoplastic washing fluid; GUC: gradient ultracentrifugation; PDEVs: plant-derived extracellular vesicles; SEC: size-exclusion chromatography; UC: ultracentrifugation; UF: ultrafiltration.