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Figure 2. Major biological sources and reported therapeutic effects of animal-derived vesicular particles. The diagram summarizes the principal biological sources of animal-derived vesicular particles, including glandular secretions, tissues, and cultured animal cells, together with their reported therapeutic effects. Major activities include immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, regenerative, antibacterial, and antiviral effects, which are mediated by source-dependent cargoes and molecular mechanisms. Created in BioRender. LIU, Y. (2026) (https://BioRender.com/9kqlmu3). GM-CSF: Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; IFNγ: interferon gamma; LPS: lipopolysaccharide; M0: unpolarized macrophages; M1: classically activated macrophages; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa B; Th1: T helper 1 cell; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor alpha.