fig4
Figure 4. Overview of internalization of MEVs, BEVs and PEVs. Cells uptake them through three principal mechanisms: membrane fusion, endocytosis, and receptor-mediated signaling. Subsequently, once inside the cell, they release their contents, fulfilling their designated biological functions. Created in BioRender. Bigbone B. (2025) https://BioRender.com/e93q0ii. EVs: Extracellular vesicles; MEVs: mammalian extracellular vesicles; BEVs: bacterial extracellular vesicles; PEVs: plant-derived extracellular vesicles.
