fig1

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of MSC-EV delivery and targeting to TECs. Kidney injury can involve disruption of the glomerular filtration barrier, inflammation, immune cell infiltration, and tubular epithelial cell injury. Passive targeting: MSC-EVs can extravasate through a compromised glomerular barrier to reach the tubular lumen or access the interstitial space via injury-induced increases in peritubular capillary permeability. Active targeting: MSC-EVs can be surface-modified for homing to injured TECs using ligands such as CD44-specific antibodies or peptides binding to KIM-1. Created in BioRender. pan, L. (2025) https://BioRender.com/zg9iyea. MSC-EV: Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicle; TEC: tubular epithelial cell; CD44: cluster of differentiation 44; KIM-1: kidney injury molecule-1.