fig2

Figure 2. Schematic of the PT/G@Exos scaffold, where EPC-exos are encapsulated in GelMA and directly anchored onto the 3D-printed bioactive glass scaffold. The PG precursor binds TCP powder to form a 3D-printed PT scaffold. This design enables the sustained release of sEVs alongside Ca, Si, and P ions, thus orchestrating the angiogenesis-osteogenesis coupling to accelerate vascularized bone regeneration. Reprint with permission from Elsevier^[94]. PT: 45S5 bioactive glass precursor scaffold; PG: photocurable 45S5 bioactive glass; Exos: exosomes; EPC-exos: endothelial progenitor cell-derived exosomes; sEVs: small extracellular vesicles; GelMA: gelatin methacryloyl; TCP: tricalcium phosphate.