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Figure 5. Current challenges and future directions of bioprinted sEVs. Multiphasic bioprinted scaffolds loaded with sEVs derived from various parent cells are designed to simultaneously target regeneration of cementum, PDL, and bone. Depending on the target tissue, natural sEVs are isolated and purified, and engineered sEVs are modified as needed for incorporation into bioinks. Personalized scaffold design is achieved using CAD-CAM technology. Following 3D bioprinting, constructs undergo mechanical testing and in vitro evaluation. Preclinical studies and clinical trials are essential prior to clinical application. Created in BioRender. Zhang, C. (2025) https://BioRender.com/iz32ou4. sEVs: Small extracellular vesicles; PDL: periodontal ligament; CAD: computer-aided design; CAM: computer-aided manufacturing; 3D: three-dimensional.