fig3

Figure 3. Representative liquid-cooling configurations and classification relationships for lithium-ion batteries. (A) Complete-immersion single-phase cooling under static-flow and forced-flow conditions; (A) is reprinted with permission from Ref.^[81], under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license. (B) indirect-contact cold-plate cooling with an alternating battery-cell/cold-plate arrangement; (B) is reprinted with permission from Ref.^[82], under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license. (C) hybrid CPCM-liquid cooling battery thermal management system; (C) is reprinted with permission from Ref.^[83], under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license. (D) pumped two-phase battery cooling system with flow boiling in the cold plate; (D) is reprinted with permission from Ref.^[84], under the terms of the CC BY 4.0 license. (E) multidimensional classification relationships of liquid-cooling systems. CPCM: Composite phase change material.