REFERENCES
1. Gunner C, Gulamhusein A, Rosario DJ. The modern role of androgen deprivation therapy in the management of localised and locally advanced prostate cancer. J Clin Urol 2016;9:24-9.
2. Crawford ED, Heidenreich A, Lawrentschuk N, et al. Androgen-targeted therapy in men with prostate cancer: evolving practice and future considerations. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2019;22:24-38.
3. Perera M, Roberts MJ, Klotz L, et al. Intermittent versus continuous androgen deprivation therapy for advanced prostate cancer. Nat Rev Urol 2020;17:469-81.
4. Karantanos T, Corn PG, Thompson TC. Prostate cancer progression after androgen deprivation therapy: mechanisms of castrate resistance and novel therapeutic approaches. Oncogene 2013;32:5501-11.
5. Saad F, Bögemann M, Suzuki K, Shore N. Treatment of nonmetastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer: focus on second-generation androgen receptor inhibitors. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2021;24:323-34.
6. Formaggio N, Rubin MA, Theurillat JP. Loss and revival of androgen receptor signaling in advanced prostate cancer. Oncogene 2021;40:1205-16.
7. Perlmutter MA, Lepor H. Androgen deprivation therapy in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Rev Urol 2007;9:S3-8.
8. Vaishampayan UN, Heilbrun LK, Monk P 3rd, et al. Clinical efficacy of enzalutamide vs bicalutamide combined with androgen deprivation therapy in men with metastatic hormone-sensitive prostate cancer: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Netw Open 2021;4:e2034633.
9. Spratt DE, Malone S, Roy S, et al. Prostate radiotherapy with adjuvant androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) improves metastasis-free survival compared to neoadjuvant ADT: an individual patient meta-analysis. J Clin Oncol 2021;39:136-44.
10. Thoma C. Prostate cancer: 2-year ADT improves survival in patients receiving high-dose radiotherapy. Nat Rev Urol 2015;12:181.
11. Kim M, Song C, Jeong IG, et al. Androgen deprivation therapy during and after post-prostatectomy radiotherapy in patients with prostate cancer: a case control study. BMC Cancer 2018;18:271.
12. Shore ND. Current and future management of locally advanced and metastatic prostate cancer. Rev Urol 2020;22:110-23.
13. Singh AB. Physiology and pathophysiology of male sex hormones. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism 2004;15:408-9.
14. Merlet J, Racine C, Moreau E, Moreno SG, Habert R. Male fetal germ cells are targets for androgens that physiologically inhibit their proliferation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007;104:3615-20.
15. Mizokami A, Koh E, Izumi K, et al. Prostate cancer stromal cells and LNCaP cells coordinately activate the androgen receptor through synthesis of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone from dehydroepiandrosterone. Endocr Relat Cancer 2009;16:1139-55.
16. Barnes KA, Ball LE, Galvão DA, Newton RU, Chambers SK. Nutrition care guidelines for men with prostate cancer undergoing androgen deprivation therapy: do we have enough evidence? Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2019;22:221-34.
17. Higano CS. Side effects of androgen deprivation therapy: monitoring and minimizing toxicity. Urology 2003;61:32-8.
18. Nguyen PL, Alibhai SM, Basaria S, et al. Adverse effects of androgen deprivation therapy and strategies to mitigate them. Eur Urol 2015;67:825-36.
19. Álvarez-Maestro M, Eguibar A, Chanca P, et al. Androgen deprivation therapy in patients with prostate cancer increases serum levels of thromboxane A2: cardiovascular Implications. Front Cardiovasc Med 2021;8:653126.
20. Lee HY, Chen HL, Teoh JY, et al. Abiraterone and enzalutamide had different adverse effects on the cardiovascular system: a systematic review with pairwise and network meta-analyses. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2021;24:244-52.
21. Alumkal JJ, Sun D, Lu E, et al. Transcriptional profiling identifies an androgen receptor activity-low, stemness program associated with enzalutamide resistance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020;117:12315-23.
22. Montgomery RB, Mostaghel EA, Vessella R, et al. Maintenance of intratumoral androgens in metastatic prostate cancer: a mechanism for castration-resistant tumor growth. Cancer Res 2008;68:4447-54.
23. Li J, Fu X, Cao S, et al. Membrane-associated androgen receptor (AR) potentiates its transcriptional activities by activating heat shock protein 27 (HSP27). J Biol Chem 2018;293:12719-29.
24. He Y, Wei T, Ye Z, et al. A noncanonical AR addiction drives enzalutamide resistance in prostate cancer. Nat Commun 2021;12:1521.
25. Shu SK, Liu Q, Coppola D, Cheng JQ. Phosphorylation and activation of androgen receptor by Aurora-A. J Biol Chem 2016;291:22854.
26. Sumiyoshi T, Mizuno K, Yamasaki T, et al. Clinical utility of androgen receptor gene aberrations in circulating cell-free DNA as a biomarker for treatment of castration-resistant prostate cancer. Sci Rep 2019;9:4030.
27. Wadosky KM, Koochekpour S. Molecular mechanisms underlying resistance to androgen deprivation therapy in prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2016;7:64447-70.
28. Jernberg E, Bergh A, Wikström P. Clinical relevance of androgen receptor alterations in prostate cancer. Endocr Connect 2017;6:R146-61.
29. Watson PA, Arora VK, Sawyers CL. Emerging mechanisms of resistance to androgen receptor inhibitors in prostate cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2015;15:701-11.
30. Huang Y, Jiang X, Liang X, Jiang G. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of castration resistant prostate cancer. Oncol Lett 2018;15:6063-76.
31. Culig Z. Molecular mechanisms of enzalutamide resistance in prostate cancer. Curr Mol Biol Rep 2017;3:230-5.
32. Huang H, Wang C, Liu F, et al. Reciprocal network between cancer stem-like cells and macrophages facilitates the progression and androgen deprivation therapy resistance of prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2018;24:4612-26.
33. Moltzahn F, Thalmann GN. Cancer stem cells in prostate cancer. Transl Androl Urol 2013;2:242-53.
34. Plaks V, Kong N, Werb Z. The cancer stem cell niche: how essential is the niche in regulating stemness of tumor cells? Cell Stem Cell 2015;16:225-38.
35. Kim J, Koo BK, Knoblich JA. Human organoids: model systems for human biology and medicine. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2020;21:571-84.
37. Prajapati A, Gupta S, Mistry B, Gupta S. Prostate stem cells in the development of benign prostate hyperplasia and prostate cancer: emerging role and concepts. Biomed Res Int 2013;2013:107954.
39. Xin L, Lawson DA, Witte ON. The Sca-1 cell surface marker enriches for a prostate-regenerating cell subpopulation that can initiate prostate tumorigenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005;102:6942-7.
41. Heer R. Hunterian Lecture. Characterisation of human prostate epithelial progenitor differentiation in response to androgens. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 2011;93:424-8.
42. Butler W, Huang J. Neuroendocrine cells of the prostate: histology, biological functions, and molecular mechanisms. Precis Clin Med 2021;4:25-34.
43. Harris KS, Kerr BA. Prostate cancer stem cell markers drive progression, therapeutic resistance, and bone metastasis. Stem Cells Int 2017;2017:8629234.
44. Zhang K, Zhou S, Wang L, et al. Current stem cell biomarkers and their functional mechanisms in prostate cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2016;17:1163.
45. Li S, Goncalves KA, Lyu B, Yuan L, Hu GF. Chemosensitization of prostate cancer stem cells in mice by angiogenin and plexin-B2 inhibitors. Commun Biol 2020;3:26.
46. Kerr BA, Miocinovic R, Smith AK, et al. CD117⁺ cells in the circulation are predictive of advanced prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2015;6:1889-97.
47. Chen X, Li Q, Liu X, et al. Defining a population of stem-like human prostate cancer cells that can generate and propagate castration-resistant prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2016;22:4505-16.
48. Yu C, Yao Z, Dai J, et al. ALDH activity indicates increased tumorigenic cells, but not cancer stem cells, in prostate cancer cell lines. In Vivo 2011;25:69-76.
49. Miyazawa K, Tanaka T, Nakai D, Morita N, Suzuki K. Immunohistochemical expression of four different stem cell markers in prostate cancer: high expression of NANOG in conjunction with hypoxia-inducible factor-1α expression is involved in prostate epithelial malignancy. Oncol Lett 2014;8:985-92.
50. Collins AT, Berry PA, Hyde C, Stower MJ, Maitland NJ. Prospective identification of tumorigenic prostate cancer stem cells. Cancer Res 2005;65:10946-51.
51. Clark DW, Palle K. Aldehyde dehydrogenases in cancer stem cells: potential as therapeutic targets. Ann Transl Med 2016;4:518.
52. Castellón EA, Valenzuela R, Lillo J, et al. Molecular signature of cancer stem cells isolated from prostate carcinoma and expression of stem markers in different Gleason grades and metastasis. Biol Res 2012;45:297-305.
53. Rhodes DR, Sanda MG, Otte AP, Chinnaiyan AM, Rubin MA. Multiplex biomarker approach for determining risk of prostate-specific antigen-defined recurrence of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003;95:661-8.
54. Ugolkov AV, Eisengart LJ, Luan C, Yang XJ. Expression analysis of putative stem cell markers in human benign and malignant prostate. Prostate 2011;71:18-25.
55. Trerotola M, Rathore S, Goel HL, et al. CD133, Trop-2 and α2β1 integrin surface receptors as markers of putative human prostate cancer stem cells. Am J Transl Res 2010;2:135-44.
56. Matsika A, Srinivasan B, Day C, et al. Cancer stem cell markers in prostate cancer: an immunohistochemical study of ALDH1, SOX2 and EZH2. Pathology 2015;47:622-8.
57. Narayanan R. Therapeutic targeting of the androgen receptor (AR) and AR variants in prostate cancer. Asian J Urol 2020;7:271-83.
58. Ku SY, Gleave ME, Beltran H. Towards precision oncology in advanced prostate cancer. Nat Rev Urol 2019;16:645-54.
59. Guerrero J, Alfaro IE, Gómez F, Protter AA, Bernales S. Enzalutamide, an androgen receptor signaling inhibitor, induces tumor regression in a mouse model of castration-resistant prostate cancer. Prostate 2013;73:1291-305.
60. Ojo D, Lin X, Wong N, Gu Y, Tang D. Prostate cancer stem-like cells contribute to the development of castration-resistant prostate cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2015;7:2290-308.
61. Yu B, Liu Y, Luo H, et al. Androgen receptor splicing variant 7 (ARV7) inhibits docetaxel sensitivity by inactivating the spindle assembly checkpoint. J Biol Chem 2021;296:100276.
62. Li T, Su Y, Mei Y, et al. ALDH1A1 is a marker for malignant prostate stem cells and predictor of prostate cancer patients’ outcome. Lab Invest 2010;90:234-44.
63. Efremov YR, Proskurina AS, Potter EA, et al. Cancer stem cells: emergent nature of tumor emergency. Front Genet 2018;9:544.
64. Leão R, Domingos C, Figueiredo A, et al. Cancer stem cells in prostate cancer: implications for targeted therapy. Urol Int 2017;99:125-36.
65. Xu T, He K, Wang L, Goldkorn A. Prostate tumor cells with cancer progenitor properties have high telomerase activity and are rapidly killed by telomerase interference. Prostate 2011;71:1390-400.
66. Rajasekhar VK, Studer L, Gerald W, Socci ND, Scher HI. Tumour-initiating stem-like cells in human prostate cancer exhibit increased NF-κB signalling. Nat Commun 2011;2:162.
67. John J, Powell K, Conley-Lacomb MK, Chinni SR. TMPRSS2-ERG Fusion gene expression in prostate tumor cells and its clinical and biological significance in prostate cancer progression. J Cancer Sci Ther 2012;4:94-101.
68. Nishida S, Hirohashi Y, Torigoe T, et al. Prostate cancer stem-like cells/cancer-initiating cells have an autocrine system of hepatocyte growth factor. Cancer Sci 2013;104:431-6.
69. Zhang C, Yang Z, Dong DL, et al. 3D culture technologies of cancer stem cells: promising ex vivo tumor models. J Tissue Eng 2020;11:2041731420933407.
70. Vander Griend DJ, Karthaus WL, Dalrymple S, et al. The role of CD133 in normal human prostate stem cells and malignant cancer-initiating cells. Cancer Res 2008;68:9703-11.
71. Kanwal R, Shukla S, Walker E, Gupta S. Acquisition of tumorigenic potential and therapeutic resistance in CD133+ subpopulation of prostate cancer cells exhibiting stem-cell like characteristics. Cancer Lett 2018;430:25-33.
72. Santaliz-Ruiz LE, Xie X, Old M, Teknos TN, Pan Q. Emerging role of nanog in tumorigenesis and cancer stem cells. Int J Cancer 2014;135:2741-8.
73. Verma S, Shankar E, Kalayci FNC, et al. Androgen deprivation induces transcriptional reprogramming in prostate cancer cells to develop stem cell-like characteristics. Int J Mol Sci 2020;21:9568.
74. Sun Y, Liu Y, Ma X, Hu H. The influence of cell cycle regulation on chemotherapy. Int J Mol Sci 2021;22:6923.
75. Qiu H, Fang X, Luo Q, Ouyang G. Cancer stem cells: a potential target for cancer therapy. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015;72:3411-24.
77. Yang L, Shi P, Zhao G, et al. Targeting cancer stem cell pathways for cancer therapy. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2020;5:8.
80. Wang Z, Li Y, Wang Y, et al. Targeting prostate cancer stem-like cells by an immunotherapeutic platform based on immunogenic peptide-sensitized dendritic cells-cytokine-induced killer cells. Stem Cell Res Ther 2020;11:123.
81. Han L, Shi S, Gong T, Zhang Z, Sun X. Cancer stem cells: therapeutic implications and perspectives in cancer therapy. Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B 2013;3:65-75.
82. Zhang K, Guo Y, Wang X, et al. WNT/β-catenin directs self-renewal symmetric cell division of hTERThigh prostate cancer stem cells. Cancer Res 2017;77:2534-47.
83. Zhang Z, Cheng L, Li J, et al. Inhibition of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway overcomes resistance to enzalutamide in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2018;78:3147-62.
84. Le PN, McDermott JD, Jimeno A. Targeting the Wnt pathway in human cancers: therapeutic targeting with a focus on OMP-54F28. Pharmacol Ther 2015;146:1-11.
85. Schneider JA, Logan SK. Revisiting the role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in prostate cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018;462:3-8.
87. Raman S, Beilschmidt M, To M, et al. Structure-guided design fine-tunes pharmacokinetics, tolerability, and antitumor profile of multispecific frizzled antibodies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019;116:6812-7.
88. Singh SK, Gordetsky JB, Bae S, et al. Selective targeting of the hedgehog signaling pathway by PBM nanoparticles in docetaxel-resistant prostate cancer. Cells 2020;9:1976.
89. Fu J, Rodova M, Nanta R, et al. NPV-LDE-225 (Erismodegib) inhibits epithelial mesenchymal transition and self-renewal of glioblastoma initiating cells by regulating miR-21, miR-128, and miR-200. Neuro Oncol 2013;15:691-706.
90. Gonnissen A, Isebaert S, McKee CM, et al. The hedgehog inhibitor GANT61 sensitizes prostate cancer cells to ionizing radiation both in vitro and in vivo. Oncotarget 2016;7:84286-98.
92. Kaltschmidt C, Banz-Jansen C, Benhidjeb T, et al. A role for NF-κB in organ specific cancer and cancer stem cells. Cancers (Basel) 2019;11:655.
93. Pietzak EJ, Eastham JA. Neoadjuvant treatment of high-risk, clinically localized prostate cancer prior to radical prostatectomy. Curr Urol Rep 2016;17:37.
94. Heath EI, Hillman DW, Vaishampayan U, et al. A phase II trial of 17-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin in patients with hormone-refractory metastatic prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2008;14:7940-6.
95. Vidal AC, Howard LE, Moreira DM, et al. Aspirin, NSAIDs, and risk of prostate cancer: results from the REDUCE study. Clin Cancer Res 2015;21:756-62.
96. Ranganathan P, Weaver KL, Capobianco AJ. Notch signalling in solid tumours: a little bit of everything but not all the time. Nat Rev Cancer 2011;11:338-51.
97. Takebe N, Miele L, Harris PJ, et al. Targeting notch, hedgehog, and Wnt pathways in cancer stem cells: clinical update. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2015;12:445-64.
98. Stein MN, DiPaola RS, Mayer TM, et al. A randomized phase II study of bicalutamide (BIC) followed by placebo or gamma secretase inhibitor RO4929097 (RO492) in men with rising PSA. J Clin Oncol 2012;30:219.
99. Begicevic RR, Falasca M. ABC transporters in cancer stem cells: beyond chemoresistance. Int J Mol Sci 2017;18:2362.
100. Liao CP, Adisetiyo H, Liang M, Roy-Burman P. Cancer stem cells and microenvironment in prostate cancer progression. Horm Cancer 2010;1:297-305.
101. Giddings EL, Champagne DP, Wu MH, et al. Mitochondrial ATP fuels ABC transporter-mediated drug efflux in cancer chemoresistance. Nat Commun 2021;12:2804.
102. Rybalchenko V, Prevarskaya N, Van Coppenolle F, et al. Verapamil inhibits proliferation of LNCaP human prostate cancer cells influencing K+ channel gating. Mol Pharmacol 2001;59:1376-87.
