REFERENCES
2. Schrecengost R, Knudsen KE. Molecular pathogenesis and progression of prostate cancer. Semin Oncol 2013;40:244-58.
3. Teo MY, Rathkopf DE, Kantoff P. Treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Annu Rev Med 2019;70:479-99.
4. Einstein DJ, Arai S, Balk SP. Targeting the androgen receptor and overcoming resistance in prostate cancer. Curr Opin Oncol 2019;31:175-82.
5. Graf RP, Hullings M, Barnett ES, Carbone E, Dittamore R, Scher HI. Clinical utility of the nuclear-localized AR-V7 biomarker in circulating tumor cells in improving physician treatment choice in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2020;77:170-7.
6. Salami J, Alabi S, Willard RR, et al. Androgen receptor degradation by the proteolysis-targeting chimera ARCC-4 outperforms enzalutamide in cellular models of prostate cancer drug resistance. Commun Biol 2018;1:100.
7. Han X, Wang C, Qin C, et al. Discovery of ARD-69 as a highly potent proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) degrader of androgen receptor (AR) for the treatment of prostate cancer. J Med Chem 2019;62:941-64.
8. Neklesa T, Snyder LB, Willard RR, et al. ARV-110: an oral androgen receptor PROTAC degrader for prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 2019;37:259.
9. Kregel S, Wang C, Han X, et al. Androgen receptor degraders overcome common resistance mechanisms developed during prostate cancer treatment. Neoplasia 2020;22:111-9.
10. Lin D, Ettinger SL, Qu S, et al. Metabolic heterogeneity signature of primary treatment-naïve prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2017;8:25928-41.
11. Choi SY, Xue H, Wu R, et al. The MCT4 Gene: a novel, potential target for therapy of advanced prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2016;22:2721-33.
12. Wilson KM, Mucci LA. Diet and lifestyle in prostate cancer. In: Dehm SM, Tindall DJ, editors. Prostate cancer. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2019. pp. 1-27.
13. Lin PH, Aronson W, Freedland SJ. An update of research evidence on nutrition and prostate cancer. Urol Oncol 2019;37:387-401.
14. Vidal AC, Oyekunle T, Howard LE, et al. Obesity, race, and long-term prostate cancer outcomes. Cancer 2020;126:3733-41.
15. Keto CJ, Aronson WJ, Terris MK, et al. Obesity is associated with castration-resistant disease and metastasis in men treated with androgen deprivation therapy after radical prostatectomy: results from the SEARCH database. BJU Int 2012;110:492-8.
16. Barfeld SJ, Itkonen HM, Urbanucci A, Mills IG. Androgen-regulated metabolism and biosynthesis in prostate cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2014;21:T57-66.
17. Costello LC, Franklin RB. A comprehensive review of the role of zinc in normal prostate function and metabolism; and its implications in prostate cancer. Arch Biochem Biophys 2016;611:100-12.
18. Massie CE, Lynch A, Ramos-Montoya A, et al. The androgen receptor fuels prostate cancer by regulating central metabolism and biosynthesis. EMBO J 2011;30:2719-33.
19. Heemers HV, Verhoeven G, Swinnen JV. Androgen activation of the sterol regulatory element-binding protein pathway: Current insights. Mol Endocrinol 2006;20:2265-77.
20. Chan SC, Selth LA, Li Y, et al. Targeting chromatin binding regulation of constitutively active AR variants to overcome prostate cancer resistance to endocrine-based therapies. Nucleic Acids Res 2015;43:5880-97.
21. Sharma NL, Massie CE, Ramos-Montoya A, et al. The androgen receptor induces a distinct transcriptional program in castration-resistant prostate cancer in man. Cancer Cell 2013;23:35-47.
22. Mah C, Nassar ZD, Swinnen JV, Butler L. Lipogenic effects of androgen signaling in normal and malignant prostate. Asian J Urol 2020;7:258-70.
23. Swinnen JV, Van Veldhoven PP, Esquenet M, Heyns W, Verhoeven G. Androgens markedly stimulate the accumulation of neutral lipids in the human prostatic adenocarcinoma cell line LNCaP. Endocrinology 1996;137:4468-74.
24. Swinnen JV, Brusselmans K, Verhoeven G. Increased lipogenesis in cancer cells: new players, novel targets. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2006;9:358-65.
25. Hosios AM, Vander Heiden MG. The redox requirements of proliferating mammalian cells. J Biol Chem 2018;293:7490-8.
26. Wu X, Dong Z, Wang CJ, et al. FASN regulates cellular response to genotoxic treatments by increasing PARP-1 expression and DNA repair activity via NF-κB and SP1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016;113:E6965-73.
27. Ackerman D, Simon MC. Hypoxia, lipids, and cancer: surviving the harsh tumor microenvironment. Trends Cell Biol 2014;24:472-8.
28. Swinnen JV, Ulrix W, Heyns W, Verhoeven G. Coordinate regulation of lipogenic gene expression by androgens: evidence for a cascade mechanism involving sterol regulatory element binding proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997;94:12975-80.
29. Swinnen JV, Heemers H, van de Sande T, et al. Androgens, lipogenesis and prostate cancer. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2004;92:273-9.
30. Watt MJ, Clark AK, Selth LA, et al. Suppressing fatty acid uptake has therapeutic effects in preclinical models of prostate cancer. Sci Transl Med 2019;11:eaau5758.
31. Tousignant KD, Rockstroh A, Taherian Fard A, et al. Lipid uptake is an androgen-enhanced lipid supply pathway associated with prostate cancer disease progression and bone metastasis. Mol Cancer Res 2019;17:1166-79.
32. Schlaepfer IR, Rider L, Rodrigues LU, et al. Lipid catabolism via CPT1 as a therapeutic target for prostate cancer. Mol Cancer Ther 2014;13:2361-71.
33. Itkonen HM, Brown M, Urbanucci A, et al. Lipid degradation promotes prostate cancer cell survival. Oncotarget 2017;8:38264-75.
34. Diedrich JD, Rajagurubandara E, Herroon MK, et al. Bone marrow adipocytes promote the Warburg phenotype in metastatic prostate tumors via HIF-1alpha activation. Oncotarget 2016;7:64854-77.
35. Stoykova GE, Schlaepfer IR. Lipid metabolism and endocrine resistance in prostate cancer, and new opportunities for therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2019;20:2626.
36. Ettinger SL, Sobel R, Whitmore TG, et al. Dysregulation of sterol response element-binding proteins and downstream effectors in prostate cancer during progression to androgen independence. Cancer Res 2004;64:2212-21.
37. Sharp A, Coleman I, Yuan W, et al. Androgen receptor splice variant-7 expression emerges with castration resistance in prostate cancer. J Clin Invest 2019;129:192-208.
38. Han W, Gao S, Barrett D, et al. Reactivation of androgen receptor-regulated lipid biosynthesis drives the progression of castration-resistant prostate cancer. Oncogene 2018;37:710-21.
39. Joshi M, Stoykova GE, Salzmann-Sullivan M, et al. CPT1A supports castration-resistant prostate cancer in androgen-deprived conditions. Cells 2019;8:1115.
40. Zadra G, Loda M. Metabolic vulnerabilities of prostate cancer: diagnostic and therapeutic opportunities. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2018;8:a030569.
41. Li X, Chen YT, Hu P, Huang WC. Fatostatin displays high antitumor activity in prostate cancer by blocking SREBP-regulated metabolic pathways and androgen receptor signaling. Mol Cancer Ther 2014;13:855-66.
42. Zadra G, Ribeiro CF, Chetta P, et al. Inhibition of de novo lipogenesis targets androgen receptor signaling in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019;116:631-40.
43. Kong Y, Cheng L, Mao F, et al. Inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis overcomes enzalutamide resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). J Biol Chem 2018;293:14328-41.
45. San-Millan I, Brooks GA. Reexamining cancer metabolism: lactate production for carcinogenesis could be the purpose and explanation of the Warburg Effect. Carcinogenesis 2017;38:119-33.
46. Pertega-Gomes N, Felisbino S, Massie CE, et al. A glycolytic phenotype is associated with prostate cancer progression and aggressiveness: a role for monocarboxylate transporters as metabolic targets for therapy. J Pathol 2015;236:517-30.
47. Lavallee E, Bergeron M, Buteau FA, et al. Increased prostate cancer glucose metabolism detected by (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography in localised Gleason 8-10 prostate cancers identifies very high-risk patients for early recurrence and resistance to castration. Eur Urol Focus 2019;5:998-1006.
48. Bok R, Lee J, Sriram R, et al. The role of lactate metabolism in prostate cancer progression and metastases revealed by dual-agent hyperpolarized (13)C MRSI. Cancers (Basel) 2019;11:257.
49. Choi SYC, Ettinger SL, Lin D, et al. Targeting MCT4 to reduce lactic acid secretion and glycolysis for treatment of neuroendocrine prostate cancer. Cancer Med 2018;17:3385-92.
50. Zacharias N, Lee J, Ramachandran S, et al. Androgen receptor signaling in castration-resistant prostate cancer alters hyperpolarized pyruvate to lactate conversion and lactate levels in vivo. Mol Imaging Biol 2019;21:86-94.
51. Sreekumar A, Poisson LM, Rajendiran TM, et al. Metabolomic profiles delineate potential role for sarcosine in prostate cancer progression. Nature 2009;457:910-4.
52. Jentzmik F, Stephan C, Lein M, et al. Sarcosine in prostate cancer tissue is not a differential metabolite for prostate cancer aggressiveness and biochemical progression. J Urol 2011;185:706-11.
53. Kaushik AK, Vareed SK, Basu S, et al. Metabolomic profiling identifies biochemical pathways associated with castration-resistant prostate cancer. J Proteome Res 2014;13:1088-100.
54. Shafi AA, Putluri V, Arnold JM, et al. Differential regulation of metabolic pathways by androgen receptor (AR) and its constitutively active splice variant, AR-V7, in prostate cancer cells. Oncotarget 2015;6:31997-2012.
55. Chi JT, Lin PH, Tolstikov V, et al. Metabolomic effects of androgen deprivation therapy treatment for prostate cancer. Cancer Med 2020;9:3691-702.
56. Robinson D, Van Allen EM, Wu YM, et al. Integrative clinical genomics of advanced prostate cancer. Cell 2015;161:1215-28.
57. Zhou X, Yang X, Sun X, et al. Effect of PTEN loss on metabolic reprogramming in prostate cancer cells. Oncol Lett 2019;17:2856-66.
58. Chen M, Zhang J, Sampieri K, et al. An aberrant SREBP-dependent lipogenic program promotes metastatic prostate cancer. Nat Genet 2018;50:206-18.
59. Yang Y, Bai Y, He Y, et al. PTEN loss promotes intratumoral androgen synthesis and tumor microenvironment remodeling via aberrant activation of RUNX2 in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2018;24:834-46.
60. Dang CV. MYC, metabolism, cell growth, and tumorigenesis. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2013;3:a014217.
62. Fleming WH, Hamel A, MacDonald R, et al. Expression of the c-myc protooncogene in human prostatic carcinoma and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Cancer Res 1986;46:1535-8.
63. Hornberg E, Ylitalo EB, Crnalic S, et al. Expression of androgen receptor splice variants in prostate cancer bone metastases is associated with castration-resistance and short survival. PLoS One 2011;6:e19059.
64. Bernard D, Pourtier-Manzanedo A, Gil J, Beach DH. Myc confers androgen-independent prostate cancer cell growth. J Clin Invest 2003;112:1724-31.
65. Bai S, Cao S, Jin L, et al. A positive role of c-Myc in regulating androgen receptor and its splice variants in prostate cancer. Oncogene 2019;38:4977-89.
66. Nadiminty N, Tummala R, Liu C, et al. NF-kappaB2/p52:c-Myc:hnRNPA1 pathway regulates expression of androgen receptor splice variants and enzalutamide sensitivity in prostate cancer. Mol Cancer Ther 2015;14:1884-95.
67. Barfeld SJ, Fazli L, Persson M, et al. Myc-dependent purine biosynthesis affects nucleolar stress and therapy response in prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2015;6:12587-602.
69. Zawacka-Pankau J, Grinkevich VV, Hunten S, et al. Inhibition of glycolytic enzymes mediated by pharmacologically activated p53: targeting Warburg effect to fight cancer. J Biol Chem 2011;286:41600-15.
70. Yahagi N, Shimano H, Matsuzaka T, et al. p53 Activation in adipocytes of obese mice. J Biol Chem 2003;278:25395-400.
71. Simabuco FM, Morale MG, Pavan ICB, et al. p53 and metabolism: from mechanism to therapeutics. Oncotarget 2018;9:23780-823.
72. Cronauer MV, Schulz WA, Burchardt T, Ackermann R, Burchardt M. Inhibition of p53 function diminishes androgen receptor-mediated signaling in prostate cancer cell lines. Oncogene 2004;23:3541-9.
73. Maughan BL, Guedes LB, Boucher K, et al. p53 status in the primary tumor predicts efficacy of subsequent abiraterone and enzalutamide in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2018;21:260-8.
74. Castro E, Romero-Laorden N, Del Pozo A, et al. PROREPAIR-B: a prospective cohort study of the impact of germline DNA repair mutations on the outcomes of patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 2019;37:490-503.
75. Nombela P, Lozano R, Aytes A, et al. BRCA2 and other DDR genes in prostate cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2019;11:352.
76. Privat M, Radosevic-Robin N, Aubel C, et al. BRCA1 induces major energetic metabolism reprogramming in breast cancer cell. PLoS One 2014;9:e102438.
77. Zadra G, Photopoulos C, Loda M. The fat side of prostate cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta 2013;1831:1518-32.
78. Patel M, Infante J, Von Hoff D, et al. Report of a first-in-human study of the first-in-class fatty acid synthase (FASN) inhibitor TVB-2640. Cancer Res 2015;75.
79. Brenner AJ, Falchook G, Patel M, et al. Abstract P6-11-09: heavily pre-treated breast cancer patients show promising responses in the first in human study of the first-in-class fatty acid synthase (FASN) inhibitor, TVB-2640 in combination with paclitaxel. Cancer Res 2017;77.
80. Ventura R, Mordec K, Waszczuk J, et al. Inhibition of de novo palmitate synthesis by fatty acid synthase induces apoptosis in tumor cells by remodeling cell membranes, inhibiting signaling pathways, and reprogramming gene expression. EBioMedicine 2015;2:808-24.
81. Yang H, Pang L, Hu X, et al. The effect of statins on advanced prostate cancer patients with androgen deprivation therapy or abiraterone/enzalutamide: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Pharm Ther 2020;45:488-95.
82. Shah S, Carriveau WJ, Li J, et al. Targeting ACLY sensitizes castration-resistant prostate cancer cells to AR antagonism by impinging on an ACLY-AMPK-AR feedback mechanism. Oncotarget 2016;7:43713-30.
83. Nassar Z, Centenera M, Machiels J, et al. Lipid elongation in prostate cancer: an androgen regulated process and a novel therapeutic target. Oncol Abstr 2019;1:P036.
84. Tamura K, Makino A, Hullin-Matsuda F, et al. Novel lipogenic enzyme ELOVL7 is involved in prostate cancer growth through saturated long-chain fatty acid metabolism. Cancer Res 2009;69:8133-40.
85. Iglesias-Gato D, Thysell E, Tyanova S, et al. The proteome of prostate cancer bone metastasis reveals heterogeneity with prognostic implications. Clin Cancer Res 2018;24:5433-44.
86. Flaig TW, Salzmann-Sullivan M, Su LJ, et al. Lipid catabolism inhibition sensitizes prostate cancer cells to antiandrogen blockade. Oncotarget 2017;8:56051-65.
87. Xian Z, Liu J, Chen Q, et al. Inhibition of LDHA suppresses tumor progression in prostate cancer. Tumour Biol 2015;36:8093-100.
88. Muramatsu H, Sumitomo M, Morinaga S, et al. Targeting lactate dehydrogenase-A promotes docetaxel-induced cytotoxicity predominantly in castration-resistant prostate cancer cells. Oncol Rep 2019;42:224-30.
89. Xu L, Ma E, Zeng T, et al. ATM deficiency promotes progression of CRPC by enhancing Warburg effect. Endocr Relat Cancer 2019;26:59-71.
90. Bushunow P, Reidenberg MM, Wasenko J, et al. Gossypol treatment of recurrent adult malignant gliomas. J Neurooncol 1999;43:79-86.
91. Valencia T, Kim JY, Abu-Baker S, et al. Metabolic reprogramming of stromal fibroblasts through p62-mTORC1 signaling promotes inflammation and tumorigenesis. Cancer Cell 2014;26:121-35.
92. Mishra R, Haldar S, Placencio V, et al. Stromal epigenetic alterations drive metabolic and neuroendocrine prostate cancer reprogramming. J Clin Invest 2018;128:4472-84.
93. Ippolito L, Morandi A, Taddei ML, et al. Cancer-associated fibroblasts promote prostate cancer malignancy via metabolic rewiring and mitochondrial transfer. Oncogene 2019;38:5339-55.
94. Pértega-Gomes N, Vizcaíno José R, Vizcaíno JR, et al. A lactate shuttle system between tumour and stromal cells is associated with poor prognosis in prostate cancer. BMC Cancer 2014;14:352-60.
95. Vidal AC, Howard LE, Sun SX, et al. Obesity and prostate cancer-specific mortality after radical prostatectomy: results from the shared equal access regional cancer hospital (SEARCH) database. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2017;20:72-8.
96. Peck B, Schulze A. Lipid metabolism at the nexus of diet and tumor microenvironment. Trends Cancer 2019;5:693-703.
97. Labbe DP, Zadra G, Yang M, et al. High-fat diet fuels prostate cancer progression by rewiring the metabolome and amplifying the MYC program. Nat Commun 2019;10:4358.
98. Ngo TH, Barnard RJ, Anton T, et al. Effect of isocaloric low-fat diet on prostate cancer xenograft progression to androgen independence. Cancer Res 2004;64:1252-4.
99. Lin PH, Aronson W, Freedland SJ. An update of research evidence on nutrition and prostate cancer. Urol Oncol 2019;37:387-401.
100. Freedland SJ, Howard L, Allen J, et al. A lifestyle intervention of weight loss via a low-carbohydrate diet plus walking to reduce metabolic disturbances caused by androgen deprivation therapy among prostate cancer patients: carbohydrate and prostate study 1 (CAPS1) randomized controlled trial. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2019;22:428-37.
101. Freedland SJ, Allen J, Jarman A, et al. A Randomized controlled trial of a 6-month low-carbohydrate intervention on disease progression in men with recurrent prostate cancer: carbohydrate and prostate study 2 (CAPS2). Clin Cancer Res 2020;26:3035-43.
102. Kelly RS, Vander Heiden MG, Giovannucci E, Mucci LA. Metabolomic biomarkers of prostate cancer: prediction, diagnosis, progression, prognosis, and recurrence. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2016;25:887-906.
103. Kdadra M, Hockner S, Leung H, Kremer W, Schiffer E. Metabolomics biomarkers of prostate cancer: a systematic review. Diagnostics (Basel) 2019;9:21.
104. Huang G, Liu X, Jiao L, et al. Metabolomic evaluation of the response to endocrine therapy in patients with prostate cancer. Eur J Pharmacol 2014;729:132-7.
105. Lin HM, Mahon KL, Weir JM, et al. A distinct plasma lipid signature associated with poor prognosis in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Int J Cancer 2017;141:2112-20.
106. Randall EC, Zadra G, Chetta P, et al. Molecular characterization of prostate cancer with associated gleason score using mass spectrometry imaging. Mol Cancer Res 2019;17:1155-65.
107. Ren S, Shao Y, Zhao X, et al. Integration of metabolomics and transcriptomics reveals major metabolic pathways and potential biomarker involved in prostate cancer. Mol Cell Proteomics 2016;15:154-63.
108. Meller S, Meyer HA, Bethan B, et al. Integration of tissue metabolomics, transcriptomics and immunohistochemistry reveals ERG- and gleason score-specific metabolomic alterations in prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2016;7:1421-38.
109. Alexandrov T. Spatial Metabolomics and Imaging Mass Spectrometry in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. Annu Rev Biomed Data Sci 2020;3:61-87.
110. Kurhanewicz J, Vigneron D, Carroll P, Coakley F. Multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging in prostate cancer: present and future. Curr Opin Urol 2008;18:71-7.
111. Kobus T, Vos PC, Hambrock T, et al. Prostate cancer aggressiveness: in vivo assessment of MR spectroscopy and diffusion-weighted imaging at 3 T. Radiology 2012;265:457-67.
112. Bednarova S, Lindenberg ML, Vinsensia M, et al. Positron emission tomography (PET) in primary prostate cancer staging and risk assessment. Transl Androl Urol 2017;6:413-23.
113. Nelson SJ, Kurhanewicz J, Vigneron DB, et al. Metabolic imaging of patients with prostate cancer using hyperpolarized [1-(1)(3)C]pyruvate. Sci Transl Med 2013;5:198ra08.
114. Chen HY, Aggarwal R, Bok RA, et al. Hyperpolarized (13)C-pyruvate MRI detects real-time metabolic flux in prostate cancer metastases to bone and liver: a clinical feasibility study. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2020;23:269-76.
115. Aggarwal R, Vigneron DB, Kurhanewicz J. Hyperpolarized 1-[(13)C]-pyruvate magnetic resonance imaging detects an early metabolic response to androgen ablation therapy in prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2017;72:1028-9.
116. Dost RJ, Glaudemans AW, Breeuwsma AJ, de Jong IJ. Influence of androgen deprivation therapy on choline PET/CT in recurrent prostate cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2013;40:S41-7.
