REFERENCES
1. Leslie SW, Soon-Sutton TL, Sajjad H, Siref LE. Prostate cancer. StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2019.
2. American Cancer Society. Cancer facts and figures 2020. Atlanta: American Cancer Society; 2020.
3. Gamat M, McNeel DG. Androgen deprivation and immunotherapy for the treatment of prostate cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2017;24:297-310.
4. Kita Y, Goto T, Akamatsu S, Yamasaki T, Inoue T, et al. Castration-resistant prostate cancer refractory to second-generation androgen receptor axis-targeted agents: opportunities and challenges. Cancers 2018;10:345-60.
5. Feng Q, He B. Androgen receptor signaling in the development of castration- resistant prostate cancer. Front Oncol 2019;9:179-97.
6. Linder S, van der Poel HG, Bergman AM, Zwart W, Prekovic S. Enzalutamide therapy for advanced prostate cancer: efficacy, resistance and beyond. Endocr Relat Cancer 2019;26:31-52.
7. Tan ME, Li J, Xu HE, Melcher K, Yong EL. Androgen receptor: structure, role in prostate cancer and drug discovery. Acta Pharmacologica Sinica 2015;36:3-23.
8. Jin Y, Duan M, Wang X, Kong X, Zhou W, et al. Communication between the ligand-binding pocket and the activation function-2 domain of androgen receptor revealed by molecular dynamics simulations. J Chem Inf Model 2019;59:842-57.
9. Itkonen H, Mills IG. Chromatin binding by the androgen receptor in prostate cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012;360:44-51.
10. Mills IG. Maintaining and reprogramming genomic androgen receptor activity in prostate cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2014;14:187-98.
11. Chen CD, Welsbie DS, Tran C, Baek SH, Chen R, et al. Molecular determinants of resistance to antiandrogen therapy. Nat Med 2004;10:33-9.
12. Robinson D, Van Allen EM, Wu YM, Schultz N, Lonigro RJ, et al. Integrative clinical genomics of advanced prostate cancer. Cell 2015;161:1215-28.
13. Takeda DY, Spisák S, Seo JH, Bell C, O’Connor E, et al. A somatically acquired enhancer of the androgen receptor is a noncoding driver in advanced prostate cancer. Cell 2018;174:422-32.
14. Quigley DA, Dang HX, Zhao SG, Lloyd P, Aggarwal R, et al. Genomic hallmarks and structural variation in metastatic prostate cancer. Cell 2018;174:758-69.
15. Gomella LG. Effective testosterone suppression for prostate cancer: is there a best castration therapy? Rev Urol 2009;11:52-60.
16. Crona DJ, Whang YE. Androgen receptor-dependent and -independent mechanisms involved in prostate cancer therapy resistance. Cancers 2017;9:1-18.
17. Gauthier S, Martel C, Labrie F. Steroid derivatives as pure antagonists of the androgen receptor. J Steroid Biochem. Mol Biol 2012;132:93-104.
18. Liu VW, Yau WL, Tam CW, Yao KM, Shiu SY. Melatonin inhibits androgen receptor splice variant-7 (AR-V7)-induced nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) activation and NF-κB activator-induced AR-V7 expression in prostate cancer cells: potential implications for the use of melatonin in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2017;18:1-13.
19. Vasaitis TS, Bruno RD, Njar VC. CYP17 inhibitors for prostate cancer therapy. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2011;125:23-31.
20. Potter GA, Barrie SE, Jarman M, Rowlands MG. Novel steroidal inhibitors of human cytochrome P45017 alpha (17 alpha-hydroxylase-c17,20-lyase): potential agents for the treatment of prostatic cancer. J Med Chem 1995;38:2463-71.
21. Porubek D. CYP17A1: a biochemistry, chemistry, and clinical review,. Curr Top Med Chem 2013;13:1364-84.
22. Attard G, Reid AH, Olmos D, de Bono JS. Antitumor activity with CYP17 blockade indicates that castration-resistant prostate cancer frequently remains hormone driven. Cancer Res 2009;69:4937-40.
23. Sternberg CN, Petrylak DP, Madan RA, Parker C. Progress in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Am Soc Clin Oncol Educ Book 2014;34:117-31.
24. Cai C, Chen S, Ng P, Bubley GJ, Nelson PS, et al. Intratumoral de novo steroid synthesis activates androgen receptor in castration-resistant prostate cancer and is upregulated by treatment with CYP17A1 inhibitors. Cancer Res 2011;71:6503-13.
25. Chang KH, Li R, Kuri B, Lotan Y, Roehrborn CG, et al. A gain-of-function mutation in DHT synthesis in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Cell 2013;154:1074-84.
26. de Bono JS, Logothetis CJ, Molina A, Fizazi K, North S, et al. Abiraterone and increased survival in metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2011;364:1995-2005.
27. Ryan CJ, Smith MR, de Bono JS, Molina A, Logothetis CJ, et al. Abiraterone in metastatic prostate cancer without previous chemotherapy. N Engl J Med 2013;368:138-48.
28. Scher HI, Fizazi K, Saad F, Taplin ME, Sternberg CN, et al. Increased survival with enzalutamide in prostate cancer after chemotherapy. New Engl Journal Med 2012;367:1187-97.
29. Beer TM, Armstrong AJ, Rathkopf DE, Loriot Y, Sternberg CN, et al. Enzalutamide in metastatic prostate cancer before chemotherapy. New Engl J Med 2014;371:424-33.
30. Antonarakis ES, Lu C, Wang H, Luber B, Nakazawa M, et al. AR-V7 and resistance to enzalutamide and abiraterone in prostate cancer. New Engl J Med 2014;371:1028-18.
31. Mostaghel EA, Plymate SR, Montgomery B. Molecular pathways: targeting resistance in the androgen receptor for therapeutic benefit. Clin Cancer Res 2014;20:791-8.
32. Coutinho I, Day TK, Tilley WD, Selth LA. Androgen receptor signaling in castration-resistant prostate cancer: a lesson in persistence. Endocr Relat Cancer 2016;23:179-97.
33. Tucci M, Zichi C, Buttigliero C, Vignani F, Scagliotti GV, et al. Enzalutamide-resistant castration-resistant prostate cancer: challenges and solutions. Onco Targets Ther 2018;11:7353-68.
34. Bohl CE, Gao W, Miller DD, Bell CE, Dalton JT. Structural basis for antagonism and resistance of bicalutamide in prostate cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005;102:6201-6.
35. Buchanan G, Yang M, Cheong A, Harris JM, Irvine RA, et al. Structural and functional consequences of glutamine tract variation in the androgen receptor. Human molecular genetics 2004;13:1677-92.
36. Giovannucci E, Stampfer MJ, Krithivas K, Brown M, Dahl D, et al. The CAG repeat within the androgen receptor gene and its relationship to prostate cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997;94:3320-3.
37. Hsing AW, Gao YT, Wu G, Wang X, Deng J, et al. Polymorphic CAG and GGN repeat lengths in the androgen receptor gene and prostate cancer risk: a population-based case-control study in China. Cancer Res 2000;60:5111-6.
38. Stanford JL, Just JJ, Gibbs M, Wicklund KG, Neal CL, et al. Polymorphic repeats in the androgen receptor gene: molecular markers of prostate cancer risk. Cancer Res 1997;57:1194-8.
39. Beilin J, Ball EM, Favaloro JM, Zajac JD. Effect of the androgen receptor CAG repeat polymorphism on transcriptional activity: specificity in prostate and non-prostate cell lines. J Mol Endocrinol 2000;25:85-96.
40. Brooke GN, Bevan CL. The role of androgen receptor mutations in prostate cancer progression. Curr Genomics 2009;10:18-25.
41. Golias C, Iliadis I, Peschos D, Charalabopoulos K. Amplification and co-regulators of androgen receptor gene in prostate cancer. Exp Oncol 2009;31:3-8.
42. Nakazawa M, Antonarakis ES, Luo J. Androgen receptor splices variants in the era of enzalutamide and abiraterone. Horm Cancer 2014;5:265-73.
43. Guo Z, Yang X, Sun F, Jiang R, Linn DE, et al. A novel androgen receptor splice variant is up-regulated during prostate cancer progression and promotes androgen depletion-resistant growth. Cancer Res 2009;69:2305-13.
44. Hu R, Dunn TA, Wei S, Isharwal S, Veltri RW, et al. Ligand-independent androgen receptor variants derived from splicing of cryptic exons signify hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2009;69:16-22.
45. Chen X, Bernemann C, Tolkach Y, Heller M, Nientiedt C, et al. Overexpression of nuclear AR-V7 protein in primary prostate cancer is an independent negative prognostic marker in men with high-risk disease receiving adjuvant therapy. Urol Oncol 2018;36:161.e19-30.
46. Sun S, Sprenger CC, Vessella RL, Haugk K, Soriano K, et al. Castration resistance in human prostate cancer is conferred by a frequently occurring androgen receptor splice variant. J Clin Invest 2010;120:2715-30.
47. Liu T, Li Y, Gu H, Zhu G, Li J, et al. p21-Activated kinase 6 (PAK6) inhibits prostate cancer growth via phosphorylation of androgen receptor and tumorigenic E3 ligase murine double minute-2 (Mdm2). J Biol Chem 2013;288:3359-69.
48. Zhang X, Morrissey C, Sun S, Ketchandji M, Nelson PS, et al. Androgen receptor variants occur frequently in castration resistant prostate cancer metastases. PLoS One 2011;6:1-11.
49. Tagawa ST, Antonarakis ES, Gjyrezi A, Galletti G, Kim S, et al. Expression of AR-V7 and ARv567es in circulating tumor cells correlates with outcomes to taxane therapy in men with metastatic prostate cancer treated in TAXYNERGY. Clin Cancer Res 2019;25:1880-8.
50. Payton S. Prostate cancer: new insight into mechanisms of castration resistance. Nat Rev Urol 2010;7:590.
51. Huang Y, Jiang X, Liang X, Jiang G. Molecular and cellular mechanisms of castration resistant prostate cancer. Oncol lett 2018;15:6063-76.
52. Zhan Y, Zhang G, Wang X, Qi Y, Bai S, et al. Interplay between cytoplasmic and nuclear androgen receptor splice variants mediates castration resistance. Mol Cancer Res 2017;15:59-68.
53. Yang X, Guo Z, Sun F, Li W, Alfano A, et al. Novel membrane-associated androgen receptor splice variant potentiates proliferative and survival responses in prostate cancer cells. J Biol Chem 2011;286:36152-60.
54. Stanbrough M, Bubley GJ, Ross K, Golub TR, Rubin MA, et al. Increased expression of genes converting adrenal androgens to testosterone in androgen-independent prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2006;66:2815-25.
55. Khan OY, Fu G, Ismail A, Srinivasan S, Cao X, et al. Multifunction steroid receptor coactivator, E6-associated protein, is involved in development of the prostate gland. Mol Endocrinol 2006;20:544-59.
56. Beitel LK, Elhaji YA, Lumbroso R, Wing SS, Panet-Raymond V, et al. Cloning and characterization of an androgen receptor N-terminal-interacting protein with ubiquitin-protein ligase activity. J Mol Endocrinol 2002;29:2941-60.
57. He B, Bai S, Hnat AT, Kalman RI, Minges JT, et al. An androgen receptor NH2-terminal conserved motif interacts with the COOH terminus of the Hsp70-interacting protein (CHIP). J Biol Chem 2004;279:30643-53.
58. Moilanen AM, Poukka H, Karvonen U, Hakli M, Janne OA, et al. Identification of a novel RING finger protein as a coregulator in steroid receptor-mediated gene transcription. Mol Cell Biol 1998;18:5128-39.
59. Xu K, Shimelis H, Linn DE, Jiang R, Yang X, et al. Regulation of androgen receptor transcriptional activity and specificity by RNF6-induced ubiquitination. Cancer Cell 2009;15:270-82.
60. Qi J, Tripathi M, Mishra R, Sahgal N, Fazli L, et al. The E3 ubiquitin ligase Siah2 contributes to castration-resistant prostate cancer by regulation of androgen receptor transcriptional activity. Cancer Cell 2013;23:332-46.
61. Jing Y, Nguyen MM, Wang D, Pascal LE, Guo W, et al. DHX15 promotes prostate cancer progression by stimulating Siah2-mediated ubiquitination of androgen receptor. Oncogene 2018;37:6380-650.
62. Kirmizibayrak PB, Erbaykent-Tepedelen B, Gozen O, Erzurumlu Y. Divergent modulation of proteostasis in prostate cancer. Adv Exp Med Biol 2020;1233:117-51.
63. Meric-Bernstam F, Akcakanat A, Chen HQ, Do KA, Sangai T, et al. PIK3CA/PTEN mutations and akt activation as markers of sensitivity to allosteric mTOR inhibitors. Clin Cancer Res 2012;18:1777-89.
64. Taylor BS, Schultz N, Hieronymus H, Gopalan A, Xiao Y, et al. Integrative genomic profiling of human prostate cancer. Cancer Cell 2010;18:11-22.
65. Carver BS, Chapinski C, Wongvipat J, Hieronymus H, Chen Y, et al. Reciprocal feedback regulation of PI3K and androgen receptor signaling in PTEN-deficient prostate cancer. Cancer Cell 2011;19:575-86.
66. Pourmand G, Ziaee AA, Abedi AR, Mehrsai A, Alavi HA, et al. Role of PTEN gene in progression of prostate cancer. Urol J 2007;4:95-100.
67. de Bono JS, De Giorgi U, Massard C, Bracarda S, Nava Rodrigues D, et al. PTEN loss as a predictive biomarker for the Akt inhibitor ipatasertib combined with abiraterone acetate in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Ann Oncol 2016;27:243-65.
68. Toren P, Zoubeidi A. Targeting the PI3K/Akt pathway in prostate cancer: challenges and opportunities. Int J Oncol 2014;45:1793-801.
69. Fruman DA, Chiu H, Hopkins BD, Bagrodia S, Cantley LC, et al. The PI3K pathway in human disease. Cell 2017;170:605-35.
70. Li B, Sun A, Jiang W, Thrasher JB, Terranova P. PI-3 kinase p110β: a therapeutic target in advanced prostate cancers. Am J Clin Exp Urol 2014;2:188-98.
71. Leung JK, Sadar MD. Non-genomic actions of the androgen receptor in prostate cancer. Front endocrinol 2017;8:1-8.
72. Chandrasekar T, Yang JC, Gao AC, Evans CP. Mechanisms of resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Transl Androl Urol 2015;4:365-80.
73. Thomas C, Lamoureux F, Crafter C, Davies BR, Beraldi E, et al. Synergistic targeting of PI3K/AKT pathway and androgen receptor axis significantly delays castrationresistant prostate cancer progression in vivo. Mol Cancer Ther 2013;12:2342-55.
74. Kino T. Glucocorticoid receptor. In: De Groot LJ, Chrousos G, Dungan K, et al, editors. Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth: MDText.com, Inc.; 2000. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279171/. [last accessed on 14 Sep 2020].
75. Davey RA, Grossmann M. Androgen receptor structure, function and biology: from bench to bedside. Clin Biochem Rev 2016;37:3-15.
76. Scheschowitsch K, Leite JA, Assreuy J. New insights in glucocorticoid receptor signaling-more than just a ligand binding receptor. Front endocrinol 2017;8:1-9.
77. Venkitaraman R, Thomas K, Huddart RA, Horwich A, Dearnaley DP, et al. Efficacy of low-dose dexamethasone in castration-refractory prostate cancer. BJU Int 2008;101:440-3.
78. Yemelyanov A, Czwornog J, Chebotaev D, Karseladze A, Kulevitch E, et al. Tumor suppressor activity of glucocorticoid receptor in the prostate. Oncogenoe 2007;26:1885-96.
79. Arora VK, Schenkein E, Murali R, Subudhi SK, Wongvipat J, et al. Glucocorticoid receptor confers resistance to antiandrogens by bypassing androgen receptor blockade. Cell 2013;155:1309-22.
80. Isikbay M, Otto K, Kregel S, Kach J, Cai Y, et al. Glucocorticoid receptor activity contributes to resistance to androgen-targeted therapy in prostate cancer. Horm Cancer 2014;5:72-89.
81. Puhr M, Hoefer J, Eigentler A, Ploner C, Handle F, et al. The glucocorticoid receptor is a key player for prostate cancer cell survival and a target for improved antiandrogen therapy. Clin Cancer Res 2018;24:927-38.
82. Li J, Alyamani M, Zhang A, Chang KH, Berk M, et al. Aberrant corticosteroid metabolism in tumor cells enables GR takeover in enzalutamide resistant prostate cancer. Elife 2017;6:1-17.
83. Xia Y, Shen S, Verma IM. NF-κB, an active player in human cancers. Cancer Immunol Res 2014;2:823-30.
85. Zhang L, Altuwaijri S, Deng F, Chen L, Lal P, et al. NF-κB regulates androgen receptor expression and prostate cancer growth. Am J Pathol 2009;175:489-99.
86. Cui Y, Nadiminty N, Liu C, Lou W, Schwartz CT, et al. Upregulation of glucose metabolism by NF-κB2/p52 mediates enzalutamide resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer cells. Endocr Relat Cancer 2014;21:435-42.
87. Nadiminty N, Lou W, Sun M, Chen J, Yue J, et al. Aberrant activation of the androgen receptor by NF-κB2/p52 in prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res 2010;70:3309-19.
88. Shilo A, Siegfried Z, Karni R. The role of splicing factors in deregulation of alternative splicing during oncogenesis and tumor progression. Mol Cell Oncol 2015;2:1-14.
89. Nadiminty N, Tummala R, Liu C, Yang J, Lou W, et al. NF-kappaB2/p52 induces resistance to enzalutamide in prostate cancer: role of androgen receptor and its variants. Mol Cancer Ther 2013;12:1629-37.
90. Jin R, Yamashita H, Yu X, Wang J, Franco OE, et al. Inhibition of NF-kappa B signaling restores responsiveness of castrate-resistant prostate cancer cells to anti-androgen treatment by decreasing androgen receptor-variant expression. Oncogene 2015;34:3700-10.
91. Culig Z. Molecular mechanisms of enzalutamide resistance in prostate cancer. Curr Mol Biol Rep 2017;3:230-5.
92. Azevedo A, Cunha V, Teixeira AL, Medeiros R. IL-6/IL-6R as a potential key signaling pathway in prostate cancer development. World J Clin Oncol 2011;2:384-96.
93. Johnson DE, O’Keefe RA, Grandis JR. Targeting the IL-6/JAK/STAT3 signalling axis in cancer. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2018;15:234-48.
94. Liu C, Zhu Y, Lou W, Cui Y, Evans CP, et al. Inhibition of constitutively active Stat3 reverses enzalutamide resistance in LNCaP derivative prostate cancer cells. Prostate 2014;74:201-9.
95. Datta SR, Dudek H, Tao X, Masters S, Fu H, et al. Akt phosphorylation of BAD couples survival signals to the cell-intrinsic death machinery. Cell 1997;91:231-41.
96. Cardone MH, Roy N, Stennicke HR, Salvesen GS, Franke TF, et al. Regulation of cell death protease caspase-9 by phosphorylation. Science 1998;282:1318-21.
97. Biggs WH, Meisenhelder J, Hunter T, Cavenee WK, Arden KC. Protein kinase B/Akt-mediated phosphorylation promotes nuclear exclusion of the winged helix transcription factor FKHR1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1999;96:7421-6.
98. Baron S, Manin M, Beaudoin C, Leotoing L, Communal Y, et al. Androgen receptor mediates non-genomic activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-OH kinase in androgen-sensitive epithelial cells. J Biol Chem 2004;279:14579-86.
99. Nakae J, Barr V, Accili D. Differential regulation of gene expression by insulin and IGF-1 receptors correlates with phosphorylation of a single amino acid residue in the forkhead transcription factor FKHR. EMBO J 2000;19:989-96.
100. Zhao Y, Tindall DJ, Huang H. Modulation of androgen receptor by FOXA1 and FOXO1 factors in prostate cancer. Int J Biol Sci 2014;10:614-9.
101. Liu P, Li S, Gan L, Kao TP, Huang H. A transcription-independent function of FOXO1 in inhibition of androgen-independent activation of the androgen receptor in prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res 2008;68:10290-9.
102. Das TP, Suman S, Alatassi H, Ankem MK, Damodaran C. Inhibition of AKT promotes FOXO3a-dependent apoptosis in prostate cancer. Cell Death Dis 2016;7:1-10.
103. Ketola K, Munuganti RS, Davies A, Nip KM, Bishop JL, et al. Targeting prostate cancer subtype 1 by forkhead box M1 pathway inhibition. Clin Cancer Res 2017;23:6923-33.
104. Zhang X, Qiao-Li LV, Huang YT, Zhang LH, Zhou HH. Akt/FoxM1 signaling pathway-mediated upregulation of MYBL2 promotes progression of human glioma. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2017;36:1-18.
105. Puigserver P, Rhee J, Donovan J, Walkey CJ, Yoon JC, et al. .
106. Schneider JA, Logan SK. Revisiting the role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in prostate cancer. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018;462:3-8.
108. Wang G, Wang J, Sadar MD. Crosstalk between the androgen receptor and beta catenin in castrate-resistant prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2008;68:9918-27.
109. Rajan P, Sudbery IM, Villasevil MEM, Mui E, Fleming J, et al. Next-generation sequencing of advanced prostate cancer treated with androgen deprivation therapy. European Urol 2014;66:32-9.
110. Yokoyama NN, Shao S, Hoang BH, Mercola D, Zi X. Wnt signaling in castration-resistant prostate cancer: implications for therapy. Am J Clin Exp Urol 2014;2:27-44.
111. Li ZG, Yang J, Vazquez ES, Rose D, Vakar-Lopez F, et al. Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5 (LRP5) mediates the prostate cancer-induced formation of new bone. Oncogene 2008;27:596-603.
112. Sun Y, Campisi J, Higano C, Beer TM, Porter P, et al. Treatment-induced damage to the tumor microenvironment promotes prostate cancer therapy resistance through WNT16B. Nat Med 2012;18:1359-68.
113. Patriarca C, Petrella D, Campo B, Colombo P, Giunta P, et al. Elevated E-cadherin and alpha/beta-catenin expression after androgen deprivation therapy in prostate adenocarcinoma. Pathol Res Pr 2003;199:659-65.
114. Beltran H, Yelensky R, Frampton GM, Park K, Downing SR, et al. Targeted next-generation sequencing of advanced prostate cancer identifies potential therapeutic targets and disease heterogeneity. Eur Urol 2013;63:920-6.
115. Grasso CS, Wu YM, Robinson DR, Cao X, Dhanasekaran SM, et al. The mutational landscape of lethal castration-resistant prostate cancer. Nature 2012;487:239-43.
116. Velho PI, Fu W, Wang H, Mirkheshti N, Qazi F, et al. Wnt-pathway activating mutations are associated with resistance to first-line abiraterone and enzalutamide in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2020;77:14-21.
117. Chesire DR, Ewing CM, Gage WR, Isaacs WB. In vitro evidence for complex modes of nuclear β-catenin signaling during prostate growth and tumorigenesis. Oncogene 2002;21:2679-94.
118. De la Taille A, Rubin MA, Chen MW, Vacherot F, de Medina SGD, et al. Beta-catenin-related anomalies in apoptosis-resistant and hormone-refractory prostate cancer cells. Clin Cancer Res 2003;9:1801-7.
119. Chen X, Liu J, Cheng L, Li C, Zhang Z, et al. Inhibition of noncanonical Wnt pathway overcomes enzalutamide resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Prostate 2020;80:256-66.
120. Zhang Z, Cheng L, Li J, Farah E, Atallah NM, et al. Inhibition of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway overcomes resistance to enzalutamide in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2018;78:3147-62.
121. Culig Z. Proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-6 in prostate carcinogenesis. Am J Clin Exp Urol 2014;2:231-8.
122. Culig Z, Puhr M. Interleukin-6 and prostate cancer: Current developments and unsolved questions. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018;462:25-30.
123. Luo M, Zhao X, Song Y, Cheng H, Zhou R. Nuclear autophagy: an evolutionarily conserved mechanism of nuclear degradation in the cytoplasm. Autophagy 2016;12:1973-83.
124. Glick D, Barth S, Macleod KF. Autophagy: cellular and molecular mechanisms. J Pathol 2010;221:3-12.
125. Gump JM, Thorburn A. Autophagy and apoptosis: what is the connection? Trends Cell Biol 2011;21:387-92.
126. Farrow JM, Yang JC, Evans CP. Autophagy as a modulator and target in prostate cancer. Nat Rev Urol 2014;11:508-16.
127. Nguyen HG, Yang JC, Kung HJ, Shi XB, Tilki D, et al. Targeting autophagy overcomes Enzalutamide resistance in castration-resistant prostate cancer cells and improves therapeutic response in a xenograft model. Oncogene 2014;33:4521-30.
128. Matsumoto H, Yamamoto Y, Shiota M, Kuruma H, Beraldi E, et al. Cotargeting androgen receptor and clusterin delays castrate-resistant prostate cancer progression by inhibiting adaptive stress response and AR stability. Cancer Res 2013;73:5206-17.
129. Montanari M, Rossetti S, Cavaliere C, D’Aniello C, Malzone MG, et al. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition in prostate cancer: an overview. Oncotarget 2017;8:35376-89.
130. Shiota M, Yokomizo A, Takeuchi A, Imada K, Kashiwagi E, et al. Inhibition of protein kinase C/Twist1 signaling augments anticancer effects of androgen deprivation and enzalutamide in prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2014;20:951-61.
131. Ware KE, Somarelli JA, Schaeffer D, Li J, Zhang T, et al. Snail promotes resistance to enzalutamide through regulation of androgen receptor activity in prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2016;7:50507-21.
132. Conteduca V, Oromendia C, Eng KW, Bareja R, Sigouros M, et al. Clinical features of neuroendocrine prostate cancer. Eur J Cancer 2019;121:7-18.
133. Lee GT, Rosenfeld JA, Kim WT, Kwon YS, Palapattu G, et al. TCF4 induces enzalutamide resistance via neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer. PLoS One 2019;14:1-18.
134. Carver BS. Defining and targeting the oncogenic drivers of neuroendocrine prostate cancer. Cancer cell 2016;29:431-2.
135. Mosquera JM, Beltran H, Park K, MacDonald TY, Robinson BD, et al. Concurrent AURKA and MYCN gene amplifications are harbingers of lethal treatment-related neuroendocrine prostate cancer. Neoplasia (New York, NY) 2013;15:1-10.
136. Dardenne E, Beltran H, Benelli M, Gayvert K, Berger A, Puca L, et al. N-Myc induces an EZH2-mediated transcriptional program driving neuroendocrine prostate cancer. Cancer cell 2016;30:563-77.
137. Lee JK, Phillips JW, Smith BA, Park JW, Stoyanova T, et al. N-Myc drives neuroendocrine prostate cancer initiated from human prostate epithelial cells. Cancer Cell 2016;29:536-47.
138. Guo H, Ci X, Ahmed M, Hua JT, Soares F, et al. ONECUT2 is a driver of neuroendocrine prostate cancer. Nat Commun 2019;10:278.
139. Kaochar S, Mitsiades N. Multimodal action of ONECUT2 in driving neuroendocrine prostate cancer. Transl Cancer Res 2019;8:1-6.
140. Chen R, Dong X, Gleave M. Molecular model for neuroendocrine prostate cancer progression. BJU Int 2018;122:560-70.
141. Mu P, Zhang Z, Benelli M, Karthaus WR, Hoover E, et al. SOX2 promotes lineage plasticity and antiandrogen resistance in TP53-and RB1-deficient prostate cancer. Science 2017;3556320:84-88.
142. Tan HL, Sood A, Rahimi HA, Wang W, Gupta N, et al. Rb loss is characteristic of prostatic small cell neuroendocrine carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res 2014;20:890-903.
143. Gupta K, Gupta S. Neuroendocrine differentiation in prostate cancer: key epigenetic players. Transl Cancer Res 2017;6:104-8.
144. Ku SY, Rosario S, Wang Y, Mu P, Seshadri M, et al. Rb1 and Trp53 cooperate to suppress prostate cancer lineage plasticity, metastasis, and antiandrogen resistance. Science 2017;355:78-83.
145. Bishop JL, Sio A, Angeles A, Roberts ME, Azad AA, et al. PD-L1 is highly expressed in Enzalutamide resistant prostate cancer. Oncotarget 2015;6:234-42.
146. Rickman DS, Chen YB, Banerjee S, Pan Y, Yu J, et al. ERG cooperates with androgen receptor in regulating trefoil factor 3 in prostate cancer disease progression. Neoplasia 2010;12:1031-40.
147. Gerke JS, Orth MF, Tolkach Y, Romero-Pérez L, Wehweck FS, et al. Integrative clinical transcriptome analysis reveals TMPRSS2-ERG dependency of prognostic biomarkers in prostate adenocarcinoma. Int J Cancer 2020;146:2036-46.
148. Huret JL, Ahmad M, Arsaban M, Bernheim A, Cigna J, et al. Atlas of genetics and cytogenetics in oncology and haematology in 2013. Nucleic Acids Res 2012;41:920-4.
149. Tomlins SA, Rhodes DR, Perner S, Dhanasekaran SM, Mehra R, et al. Recurrent fusion of TMPRSS2 and ETS transcription factor genes in prostate cancer. Science 2005;310:644-8.
150. Shore N, Heidenreich A, Saad F. Predicting response and recognizing resistance: improving outcomes in patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer. Urology 2017;109:6-18.
