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Figure 2. Glucose metabolism in normal cells vs. the Warburg effect in cancer cells. In normal cells (left), glucose is transported via GLUT1 and metabolized through glycolysis and the PPP, generating lactate and ATP, while OXPHOS produces additional ATP in the presence of oxygen. In CCA cells (right), GLUT1 expression is upregulated, leading to increased glucose uptake. This enhances glycolysis and the PPP, promoting greater lactate production. Despite the availability of oxygen, CCA cells exhibit reduced OXPHOS activity, characteristic of the Warburg effect, in which glucose metabolism shifts toward increased glycolysis to maintain energy balance and support rapid proliferation. Created in BioRender. Chanda, M. (2025) https://BioRender.com/d1db3yv. GLUT1: Glucose transporters 1; PPP: pentose phosphate pathway; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; OXPHOS: oxidative phosphorylation; CCA: cholangiocarcinoma.