Basic needs livelihoods
Agriculture, for both commercial and subsistence purposes, is a direct and major driver of deforestation, estimated to be responsible for about 80% of forest loss worldwide[20,21]. However, the impact of subsistence communities on deforestation and forest degradation is difficult to determine at regional and global scales. To overcome the lack of available data and to distinguish between commercial and subsistence agricultural impacts, Hosonuma et al., (2012) aggregated country-level information by summarizing REDD+ readiness-related data (along with other sources)[13]. From their results, agriculture was estimated to be responsible for 73% of deforestation, which is close to the previously mentioned estimate. However, more interestingly, from their findings, an approximate value of 33% of deforestation is attributed to subsistence agriculture. Given the significance of this estimated negative impact, and to expand our understanding of the relationship between subsistence agricultural and forest loss, this review assesses the livelihood practices and activities more frequently engaged in by basic needs populations and characterizes frequently mentioned contextual factors as potential underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation.
With a similar objective but mainly focused on cash crop production systems and extraction activities, Boucher et al., (2011) examined commercial and subsistence drivers of deforestation and forest degradation[5]. In their review, they concluded that agriculture- and extraction-based drivers of deforestation vary greatly between continents. For example, cattle ranching and large-scale agriculture are major drivers of deforestation in Latin America, whereas palm oil and pulp and paper plantations are principal drivers in Indonesia. While the distribution of basic needs populations is widespread throughout the tropics and sub-tropics, the livelihood practices of these communities are closely dependent on the services and benefits obtained from natural resources[22,23]. From the results, wood harvest and crop production were the umbrella themes more frequently mentioned when associating basic needs populations with forest loss. Small-scale crop production systems were more often associated with LAC countries, while wood harvesting activities were more commonly reported in African communities. Depending on how these activities are carried out, their carbon footprint impacts can range from low to high. Compared to crop production, if wood harvesting is practiced sustainably by collecting dead and dry biomass, it can be considered less destructive to forest habitats as opposed to land cover conversion required in agricultural production[5]. Under the wood harvest theme, previous research describes fuelwood collection and charcoal production as less environmentally harmful and prevalent basic needs activities in African countries compared to other continents[13,20]. However, if wood is not harvested sustainably, not only carbon emissions are generated through environmental degradation but also through greenhouse gas emissions during the incomplete combustion of biomass[24].
In their executive summary, Boucher et al., (2011) stated that the aggregated impacts of small-scale farming and firewood collection are low and decreasing compared to commercial practices[5]. While other researchers would agree that the relative impact of industrial agricultural activities on forest is not only larger but should be the main targeted sector to reduce deforestation[21], the slow, scattered, and sometimes unnoticeable impacts of subsistence communities on forest, and thus on wildlife and climate change, is often overlooked, especially since reducing the impacts by basic needs populations on deforestation will be more challenging than targeting commercial operations[25]. While commercial agriculture and extraction activities should certainly be made more accountable, as well as other drivers of deforestation, the cycles of poverty-driven deforestation and its aggregated carbon footprint through land cover conversion need to be addressed. Basic needs communities contribute to and are affected by diminishing natural resources and climate change impacts. However, it is not about pointing fingers but providing additional supporting arguments to lift these communities from poverty cycles to reduce deforestation and forest degradation, in turn, mitigating climate impacts[9,14].
In the case of animal husbandry, owning and raising animals usually reflects relatively greater status or financial resources, as well as access to land and/or means to manage it[2,26]. Hence, the practice is not usually associated with subsistence communities but with agribusiness or wealthier farmers for commercial purposes. This may explain why in the present literature review, fewer case studies were identified relating livestock grazing to deforestation and forest degradation. However, livestock grazing for subsistence purposes has been a common practice by traditional communities that share land and/or manage pastures[27]. In the case of forest livestock grazing, the practice is opportunistic, where farmers allow their herds to graze in available forest areas, which could lead to forest degradation. However, forest grazing has been practiced for centuries in temperate forests, and while some claim negative impacts on natural ecosystems[28], others see the traditional practice in a more positive light[29]. In general, non-commercial animal husbandry managed in a sustainable manner can render many benefits to subsistence farmers while having a relatively lower carbon footprint.
Livelihood practices such as fishing and illegal practices (crop and/or mining) are activities constrained by predisposing environmental and biogeographical conditions, such as the presence of mangroves, flooding areas, remote and clandestine locations, and/or the availability of mineral resources. The implementation of these livelihood practices among basic needs populations is in large part limited to biophysical factors. However, other context specific implications are relevant for the legal and proper engagement of subsistence communities in these practices. In addition to technical capacities and financial resources, management plans or permits may be required to carry out these activities[30]. However, when conducted illegally, informal markets or trafficking networks need to be established to mobilize the products to distributors, traders, and end users[31]. Thus, while these types of subsistence livelihood practices were not common or widespread according to the present review, they could lead to severe environmental disturbances while also having relatively lower carbon footprints[31,32].
Contextual factors
To help understand how basic needs communities affect forest resources, a closer look at the contextual factors in which these communities exist may provide insights into the underlying causes that render otherwise sustainable livelihood practices into deforestation drivers. The present systematic review identified the most frequently mentioned contextual factors and socioeconomic characteristics described by authors when relating changes in forest resources to basic needs livelihood practices. When changes in population size were described, in all reported cases, the authors referred to increases in population as the most relevant underlying cause of forest loss by basic needs communities. While population growth was described in some communities as rapid compared to others and thus having greater negative impacts in those locations, the implication is that population growth increases the pressures on land and forest resources, which results in shorter fallow periods, soil nutrient depletion, and land degradation[33].
When it comes to alternative labor, the results are not straightforward. On the one hand, more job opportunities and income sources could result in a reduction in forest loss and degradation[34]. On the other hand, those jobs could be contributing to the continued dependency and degradation of forest habitats[9]. However, what came across clearly is that when alternative livelihood opportunities were sustainable or involved the protection of natural resources, these promoted the conservation of forests and natural habitats[35]. This will also be the case with access to markets and technology. When these contextual factors have clear objectives to promote forest conservation, as in the case of gas stoves used to reduce the dependency on fuelwood, deforestation and forest degradation will tend to decrease while improving human wellbeing[36]. However, for the creation of conservation-focused and sustainable alternative livelihoods, a series of support structures are required. A lack or weakness in any given community-support area (e.g., organizations that provide clear governance, social capital, and/or economic institutions) would represent a limiting factor needed to be overcome to guarantee the sustainable development of marginalized communities[37].
Government organizations are expected to aid and secure the needs and rights of their citizens, especially in the case of isolated and vulnerable communities. The public sector is responsible for establishing policies and regulations, implementing them through accomplishable plans and programs, and enforcing their compliance through effective monitoring mechanisms and inspection agencies. At the forest frontier of many tropical countries, governments need to guide the path towards achieving sustainable development. Relevant contextual factors could provide insights on what issues to prioritize in the design of sustainable development programs targeting basic needs populations for deforestation reductions and climate mitigation. In addition to addressing population pressure through the promotion of sustainable labor alternatives, land tenure rights and territorial zoning are key governance issues to manage and control land cover change and promote climate-smart production practices[5]. Given that country pledges are not on track in meeting their global environmental commitments to halt deforestation, which contributes to climate change mitigation and biodiversity loss reductions, it is necessary for other stakeholders to support government efforts in overcoming these challenges[3]. For their own operational viability, as well as for accountability and reputational risks, the private sector is starting to recognize their pivotal role in avoiding deforestation caused by their supply chains, which in the tropics often involves small and subsistence land holders[38,39]. As economic development and rural expansion reach subsistence communities at the forest frontier, basic needs populations are incorporated into markets through the commercialization of value chains and resource extraction. While not across case studies[40], the consensus was for greater market accessibility to be followed by greater forest degradation[41]. However, this could be avoided through incentive mechanisms and impact-focused financial instruments, interested in transforming economic development at the forest frontier[42]. Private sector and financial institutions can be a game-changer by promoting forest-based products, agroforestry systems, restoration activities, and innovation that could generate lucrative financial returns, in addition to social and environmental ones[43].
Limitations and key insights
Accurately assessing carbon footprint and climate change impacts from deforestation driven by poverty may be an impossible task. There are limitations in the literature available for the application of methodological approaches that would allow for the comprehensive mapping of basic needs communities, the estimation of their carbon footprint impacts through land cover change, and the monitoring of contextual factors affecting the implementation of livelihood practices and activities. Hence, the present systematic literature review represents an effort to assess a fixed and non-comprehensive list of livelihood practices and activities. Nonetheless, the review provides interesting insights on what, where, and why subsistence livelihood practices may be triggered to become less sustainable. As is often the case with environmental issues, there are no silver bullet solutions or single sectors to be targeted to reduce deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change. There are multiple development pathways in which livelihoods and contextual factors characterize and mold human communities within distinct geographical and environmental settings. Numerous efforts and various stakeholders need to be engaged to address the different drivers of deforestation. In the case of basic needs populations, their carbon footprint usually dwarfs that of other populations with higher consumption rates. Given their significance in numbers and direct dependence and impact on natural resources, subsistence populations need to be supported to ensure they can develop and excel. Low emissions livelihood activities that are economically viable, as well as environmentally responsible and that include the protection of natural resources, should be promoted. Without these provisions and safeguards, basic needs populations will be bound to continue to engage in deforestation and environmental degradation activities in order to survive, resulting in a reduction in implied carbon stocks.
Comments
Comments must be written in English. Spam, offensive content, impersonation, and private information will not be permitted. If any comment is reported and identified as inappropriate content by OAE staff, the comment will be removed without notice. If you have any queries or need any help, please contact us at support@oaepublish.com.