REFERENCES
1. Zhao Y, Ferguson PJ. Chronic non-bacterial osteomyelitis and autoinflammatory bone diseases. Clin Immunol. 2020;216:108458.
3. Kremers HM, Nwojo ME, Ransom JE, Wood-Wentz CM, Melton LJ 3rd, Huddleston PM 3rd. Trends in the epidemiology of osteomyelitis: a population-based study, 1969 to 2009. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2015;97:837-45.
5. Kavanagh N, Ryan EJ, Widaa A, et al. Staphylococcal osteomyelitis: disease progression, treatment challenges, and future directions. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2018:31.
6. Buch K, Thuesen ACB, Brøns C, Schwarz P. Chronic non-bacterial osteomyelitis: a review. Calcif Tissue Int. 2019;104:544-53.
7. Yang X, Jing S, Li S, Zhang Y, Dong L, Zou T. Chronic non-bacterial osteomyelitis presenting as fever of unknown origin in a child: a diagnostic pitfall. BMC Pediatr. 2026:26.
8. Brady RA, Leid JG, Calhoun JH, Costerton JW, Shirtliff ME. Osteomyelitis and the role of biofilms in chronic infection. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2008;52:13-22.
9. Díaz-Velis L, Salvador-Sagüez F, Roach F, et al. Metagenomic and ribosomal transcript profiles of diabetic foot osteomyelitis in Hispanic patients: underestimated bacteria in biofilm persistence. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2025;15:1729196.
10. Rausch P, Hartmann M, Baines JF, von Bismarck P. Analysis of the fecal and oral microbiota in chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis. Arthritis Res Ther. 2022;24:54.
11. Asten SA, La Fontaine J, Peters EJ, Bhavan K, Kim PJ, Lavery LA. The microbiome of diabetic foot osteomyelitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2016;35:293-8.
12. Novince CM, Whittow CR, Aartun JD, et al. Commensal gut microbiota immunomodulatory actions in bone marrow and liver have catabolic effects on skeletal homeostasis in health. Sci Rep. 2017;7:5747.
13. Nakazawa F, Sato M, Poco SE, et al. Description of Mogibacterium pumilum gen. nov., sp. nov. and Mogibacterium vescum gen. nov., sp. nov., and reclassification of Eubacterium timidum (Holdeman et al. 1980) as Mogibacterium timidum gen. nov., comb. nov. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2000;50 Pt 2:679-88.
14. Montalvany-Antonucci CC, Duffles LF, de Arruda JAA, et al. Short-chain fatty acids and FFAR2 as suppressors of bone resorption. Bone. 2019;125:112-21.
15. Locatelli V, Bianchi VE. Effect of GH/IGF-1 on bone metabolism and Osteoporsosis. Int J Endocrinol. 2014;2014:235060.
16. Yahara H, Yanamoto S, Takahashi M, et al. Shotgun metagenomic analysis of saliva microbiome suggests Mogibacterium as a factor associated with chronic bacterial osteomyelitis. PLoS One. 2024;19:e0302569.
17. Wang Y, Li Z. Mendelian randomization analysis unveils causal relationships between skin microbiota and osteomyelitis. Arch Dermatol Res. 2025;317:797.
18. Zhou Y, Yang Y, Zhu W, et al. Microbial influences on calcium-phosphorus homeostasis and metabolic bone diseases: a bidirectional mendelian randomisation study on the gut-bone axis. J Cell Mol Med. 2025;29:e70491.
19. Wang S, Yin F, Sun W, et al. The causal relationship between gut microbiota and nine infectious diseases: a two-sample Mendelian randomization analysis. Front Immunol. 2024;15:1304973.
20. Zeng W, Wu Y, Liang X, et al. Causal associations between human gut microbiota and osteomyelitis: a Mendelian randomization study. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2024;14:1338989.
21. Lukens JR, Gurung P, Vogel P, et al. Dietary modulation of the microbiome affects autoinflammatory disease. Nature. 2014;516:246-9.
22. Bui TI, Gill AL, Mooney RA, Gill SR. Modulation of gut microbiota metabolism in obesity-related type 2 diabetes reduces osteomyelitis severity. Microbiol Spectr. 2022;10:e0017022.
23. Zhou Y, Li MY, Li CY, et al. Effective mechanism of polysaccharides from Erxian herbal pair in promoting bone repair in traumatic osteomyelitis by activating osteoblast GPR41 and inhibiting the MEK/ERK/MAPK signalling axis. Int J Biol Macromol. 2025;307:141858.
24. Do ADT, Alharbi K, Perera R, Asnayanti A, Alrubaye A. Preliminary investigation of cecal microbiota in experimental broilers reared under the aerosol transmission lameness induction model. Animals (Basel). 2025;15:3641.
25. Zhao X, Zhang Z, Wang Y, et al. Association of antibiotic alterations in gut microbiota with decreased osseointegration of an intramedullary nail in mice with and without osteomyelitis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021;12:774257.
26. Song M, Sun J, Lv K, Li J, Shi J, Xu Y. A comprehensive review of pathology and treatment of staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis. Clin Exp Med. 2025;25:131.
27. Rong Z, Chen X, Qin L, et al. Immune escape of Staphylococcus aureus mediated by osteocyte lacuna-canalicular network leads to persistent and uncured bone infection. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2025;15:1592086.
28. Zou M, Cai Y, Hu P, et al. Analysis of the composition and functions of the microbiome in diabetic foot osteomyelitis based on 16S rRNA and metagenome sequencing technology. Diabetes. 2020;69:2423-39.
29. Johani K, Fritz BG, Bjarnsholt T, et al. Understanding the microbiome of diabetic foot osteomyelitis: insights from molecular and microscopic approaches. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2019;25:332-9.
30. Goda A, Maruyama F, Michi Y, Nakagawa I, Harada K. Analysis of the factors affecting the formation of the microbiome associated with chronic osteomyelitis of the jaw. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2014;20:O309-17.
31. Abu-Amer Y, Ross FP, Edwards J, Teitelbaum SL. Lipopolysaccharide-stimulated osteoclastogenesis is mediated by tumor necrosis factor via its P55 receptor. J Clin Invest. 1997;100:1557-65.
32. Galliera E, Massaccesi L, Logoluso N, Mangiavini L, Peretti G, Corsi Romanelli MM. Bone and infections: an osteoimmunological interplay. Int J Mol Sci. 2026;27:2602.
33. Singh I, Kumar A, Rajni E, et al. Hijacking of GPCRs and angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 in the pathophysiology of infectious diseases. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst. 2026;27:14703203261455738.
34. Lin J, Huang L, Song L, Shi J, Chu X, Ding H. Unraveling the diabetic link to osteoporosis: novel insights from integrative bulk and single-cell transcriptomics. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst. 2025;26:14703203251405957.
35. Zeus M, Janssen S, Laws HJ, Fischer U, Borkhardt A, Oommen PT. Results from a pilot study on the oral microbiome in children and adolescents with chronic nonbacterial osteomyelitis. Z Rheumatol. 2023;82:123-33.
36. Casarin RC, Saito D, Santos VR, et al. Detection of Mogibacterium timidum in subgingival biofilm of aggressive and non-diabetic and diabetic chronic periodontitis patients. Braz J Microbiol. 2012;43:931-7.
37. Li Q, Pu Y, Lu H, et al. Porphyromonas, treponema, and mogibacterium promote IL8/IFNγ/TNFα-based pro-inflammation in patients with medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw. J Oral Microbiol. 2020;13:1851112.
38. Schnabel A, Reiser C, Beer M, et al. Diagnosis, treatment and monitoring of chronic nonbacterial osteomyelitis (CNO) and chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis (CRMO) - evidence, practice and consensus-based recommendations from the German pediatric rheumatology society (GKJR). Autoimmun Rev. 2026;25:104075.
39. Stø K, Skagen KR, Holm K, et al. Oral Eikenella as a potential new biomarker of symptomatic carotid atherosclerosis. J Oral Microbiol. 2026;18:2613521.
40. Tang G, Kitten T, Munro CL, Wellman GC, Mintz KP. EmaA, a potential virulence determinant of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans in infective endocarditis. Infect Immun. 2008;76:2316-24.
41. Kawamoto D, Ando-Suguimoto ES, Bueno-Silva B, DiRienzo JM, Mayer MP. Alteration of homeostasis in Pre-osteoclasts induced by Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans CDT. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2016;6:33.
42. Gholizadeh P, Pormohammad A, Eslami H, Shokouhi B, Fakhrzadeh V, Kafil HS. Oral pathogenesis of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans. Microb Pathog. 2017;113:303-11.
43. Mandal RK, Jiang T, Wideman RF Jr, Lohrmann T, Kwon YM. Microbiota analysis of chickens raised under stressed conditions. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:482637.
44. Li Y, Watanabe E, Kawashima Y, et al. Identification of trypsin-degrading commensals in the large intestine. Nature. 2022;609:582-9.
45. Song R, Wang X, Zhang M, Xie M. Potential and challenges of Christensenella minuta as a next-generation probiotic. Foods. 2025;14:4085.
46. Lenoir M, Martín R, Torres-Maravilla E, et al. Butyrate mediates anti-inflammatory effects of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii in intestinal epithelial cells through Dact3. Gut Microbes. 2020;12:1-16.
47. Wang T, He C. TNF-α and IL-6: the link between immune and bone system. Curr Drug Targets. 2020;21:213-27.
48. Jiang T, Mandal RK, Wideman RF Jr, Khatiwara A, Pevzner I, Min Kwon Y. Molecular survey of bacterial communities associated with bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis (BCO) in broilers. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0124403.
49. Asnayanti A, Do ADT, Alharbi K, Alrubaye A. Inducing experimental bacterial chondronecrosis with osteomyelitis lameness in broiler chickens using aerosol transmission model. Poult Sci. 2024;103:103460.
50. Zeng L, Yang Q, Luo Y, Luo Y, Sun L. The gut microbiota: emerging evidence in autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Research (Wash D C). 2026;9:1097.
51. Shi H, Huang L, Zhang JH, et al. Gut Microbiota regulates brain-bone axis to influence osteoporosis pathogenesis and treatment. Research (Wash D C). 2026;9:1178.
52. Larsen JM. The immune response to Prevotella bacteria in chronic inflammatory disease. Immunology. 2017;151:363-74.
53. Huang Y, Tang J, Cai Z, et al. Prevotella induces the production of Th17 cells in the colon of mice. J Immunol Res. 2020;2020:9607328.
54. Archer AC, Muthukumar SP, Halami PM. Lactobacillus fermentum MCC2759 and MCC2760 alleviate inflammation and intestinal function in high-fat diet-fed and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Probiotics Antimicrob Proteins. 2021;13:1068-80.
55. Liao W, Zhang X, Jia C, et al. Lactobacillus rhamnosus LC-STH-13 ameliorates the progression of SLE in MRL/lpr mice by inhibiting the TLR9/NF-κB signaling pathway. Food Funct. 2025;16:475-86.
56. Vaghef-Mehrabany E, Alipour B, Homayouni-Rad A, Sharif SK, Asghari-Jafarabadi M, Zavvari S. Probiotic supplementation improves inflammatory status in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Nutrition. 2014;30:430-5.
57. Yang Q, Zheng C, Cao J, et al. Spermidine alleviates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis through inducing inhibitory macrophages. Cell Death Differ. 2016;23:1850-61.
58. Carriche GM, Almeida L, Stüve P, et al. Regulating T-cell differentiation through the polyamine spermidine. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2021;147:335-348.e11.
59. Pirnes-Karhu S, Määttä J, Finnilä M, Alhonen L, Uimari A. Overexpression of spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase impairs osteoblastogenesis and alters mouse bone phenotype. Transgenic Res. 2015;24:253-65.
60. Yamamoto T, Hinoi E, Fujita H, et al. The natural polyamines spermidine and spermine prevent bone loss through preferential disruption of osteoclastic activation in ovariectomized mice. Br J Pharmacol. 2012;166:1084-96.
61. Lee MJ, Chen Y, Huang YP, et al. Exogenous polyamines promote osteogenic differentiation by reciprocally regulating osteogenic and adipogenic gene expression. J Cell Biochem. 2013;114:2718-28.
