REFERENCES

1. Quintero Santofimio, V.; Amaral, A. F. S.; Feary, J. Occupational exposures in low- and middle-income countries: a scoping review. PLOS. Glob. Public. Health. 2024, 4, e0003888.

2. Abdullahi, I. L.; Sani, A. Welding fumes composition and their effects on blood heavy metals in albino rats. Toxicol. Rep. 2020, 7, 1495-501.

3. Gupta, G. A.; Vishwakarma, P.; Ramkumar, J.; Patil, S.; Gupta, T. Occupational exposure to hazardous emissions in Indian manufacturing: source analysis, control measures, and safety strategies. npj. Clean. Air. 2025, 1, 29.

4. Gobba, N. A. E. K.; Hussein Ali, A.; El Sharawy, D. E.; Hussein, M. A. The potential hazardous effect of exposure to iron dust in Egyptian smoking and nonsmoking welders. Arch. Environ. Occup. Health. 2018, 73, 189-202.

5. Oginawati, K.; Faiqah, N. S. A.; Suharyanto; Regia, R. A.; Amin, M. Indoor PM2.5 and heavy metal composition in blacksmithing factories: a pilot study in Bandung regency, Indonesia. Urban. Sci. 2024, 8, 230.

6. Yen, P.; Chung, H.; Cheng, W.; et al. Physicochemical characterization of welding and grinding fine particulates at a machinery plant: a comprehensive case study of workers’ health risk assessment. Atmos. Environ. X. 2025, 25, 100319.

7. Liu, S.; Wang, X.; Guo, Z.; et al. Health impact assessment of occupational exposure to PM2.5 during welding operations. J. Hazard. Mater. 2026, 501, 140987.

8. Su, T.; Jeng, H. A.; Hsu, Y.; Lai, C.; Pan, C. Impact of heavy metals in ambient air on insulin resistance of shipyard welders in Northern Taiwan. Sustainability 2021, 13, 13924.

9. Schraufnagel, D. E. The health effects of ultrafine particles. Exp. Mol. Med. 2020, 52, 311-7.

10. Baj, J.; Flieger, W.; Barbachowska, A.; et al. Consequences of disturbing manganese homeostasis. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 14959.

11. Čargonja, M.; Mekterović, D.; Žurga, P.; Ravlić‐Gulan, J.; Bogdanović Radović, I.; Žauhar, G. Elemental analysis of particulate matter in a metal workshop and of biological samples from exposed workers. X. Ray. Spectrom. 2021, 50, 68-79.

12. Ellwanger, J. H.; Ziliotto, M.; Chies, J. A. B. Lung deposition of particulate matter as a source of metal exposure: a threat to humans and animals. Toxics 2025, 13, 788.

13. Leikauf, G. D.; Kim, S. H.; Jang, A. S. Mechanisms of ultrafine particle-induced respiratory health effects. Exp. Mol. Med. 2020, 52, 329-37.

14. Afridi, H. I.; Kazi, T. G.; Kazi, N. G.; et al. Evaluation of arsenic, cobalt, copper and manganese in biological samples of steel mill workers by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. Toxicol. Ind. Health. 2009, 25, 59-69.

15. Ngwa, H. A.; Bargues-Carot, A.; Jin, H.; Anantharam, V.; Kanthasamy, A.; Kanthasamy, A. G. Manganese and vanadium co-exposure induces severe neurotoxicity in the olfactory system: relevance to metal-induced Parkinsonism. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 5285.

16. Hong, H.; Liu, S.; Yang, T.; et al. Manganese exposure induces parkinsonism-like symptoms by Serpina3n-TFEB-v/p-ATPase signaling mediated lysosomal dysfunction. Cell. Biol. Toxicol. 2025, 41, 34.

17. Jomova, K.; Alomar, S. Y.; Valko, R.; Nepovimova, E.; Kuca, K.; Valko, M. The role of redox-active iron, copper, manganese, and redox-inactive zinc in toxicity, oxidative stress, and human diseases. EXCLI. J. 2025, 24, 880-954.

18. Lucchini, R.; Tieu, K. Manganese-induced Parkinsonism: evidence from epidemiological and experimental studies. Biomolecules 2023, 13, 1190.

19. Bargues-Carot, A.; Kondru, N.; Haller, M.; et al. Neurotoxic effect of manganese and vanadium co-exposure in animal models of Parkinson’s disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27, 1757.

20. Motlagh, A. A.; Kashefi, T.; Soleimani, Y.; Rahman, S. A.; Al-Marzouqi, A.; Jarrahi, A. M. The role of cobalt exposure in the incidence of cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC. Public. Health. 2026, 26, 955.

21. IARC. Arsenic, metals, fibres, and dusts. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans Volume 100C. 2012. https://publications.iarc.who.int/Book-And-Report-Series/Iarc-Monographs-On-The-Identification-Of-Carcinogenic-Hazards-To-Humans/Arsenic-Metals-Fibres-And-Dusts-2012. (accessed on 29 Jul 2026).

22. Regia, R. A.; Oginawati, K.; Suharyanto; Soemarko, D. S.; Amin, M.; Santoso, M. Characterization of size-segregated (PM0.1) and its trace and major elemental composition in blacksmith factories, Indonesia. J. Environ. Expo. Assess. 2025, 4, 38.

23. Cena, L. G.; Chisholm, W. P.; Keane, M. J.; Chen, B. T. A field study on the respiratory deposition of the nano-sized fraction of mild and stainless steel welding fume metals. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2015, 12, 721-8.

24. Darquenne, C. Aerosol deposition in health and disease. J. Aerosol. Med. Pulm. Drug. Deliv. 2012, 25, 140-7.

25. Fasanmi, K. T. Respiratory symptoms, ventilatory function and health related quality of life of arc welders in South West Nigeria. Ann. Pulm. Res. Med. 2020, 1, 1001. https://www.remedypublications.com/open-access/respiratory-symptoms-ventilatory-function-and-health-related-quality-of-life-10112.pdf. (accessed on 29 Jul 2026).

26. Abdillah, S. F. I.; Wang, Y. F. Ambient ultrafine particle (PM0.1): sources, characteristics, measurements and exposure implications on human health. Environ. Res. 2023, 218, 115061.

27. Asgharian, B.; Price, O.; Borojeni, A. A. T.; et al. Influence of alveolar mixing and multiple breaths of aerosol intake on particle deposition in the human lungs. J. Aerosol. Sci. 2022, 166, 106050.

28. Young, L.; Lin, Y.; Lin, T.; et al. Field application of a newly developed personal nanoparticle sampler to selected metalworking operations. Aerosol. Air. Qual. Res. 2013, 13, 849-61.

29. Hashimoto, H.; Yamada, K.; Hori, H.; et al.; Expert Division of Occupational Hygiene & Ergonomics, the Japan Society for Occupational Health, “The Committee for Personal Exposure Monitoring”. Guidelines for personal exposure monitoring of chemicals: Part IV. J. Occup. Health. 2018, 60, 103-10.

30. Johnston, J. D.; Collingwood, S. C.; LeCheminant, J. D.; et al. Personal exposure to fine particulate air pollution among brick workers in Nepal. Atmosphere 2023, 14, 1783.

31. Payne-Sturges, D. C.; Burke, T. A.; Breysse, P.; Diener-West, M.; Buckley, T. J. Personal exposure meets risk assessment: a comparison of measured and modeled exposures and risks in an urban community. Environ. Health. Perspect. 2004, 112, 589-98.

32. Koehler, K. A.; Peters, T. M. New methods for personal exposure monitoring for airborne particles. Curr. Environ. Health. Rep. 2015, 2, 399-411.

33. Furuuchi, M.; Choosong, T.; Hata, M.; et al. Development of a personal sampler for evaluating exposure to ultrafine particles. Aerosol. Air. Qual. Res. 2010, 10, 30-7.

34. Thongyen, T.; Hata, M.; Toriba, A.; et al. Development of PM0.1 personal sampler for evaluation of personal exposure to aerosol nanoparticles. Aerosol. Air. Qual. Res. 2015, 15, 180-7.

35. USEPA. Compendium of methods for the determination of inorganic compounds in ambient air. 1999. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2019-11/documents/iocompen.pdf. (accessed on 29 Jul 2026).

36. USEPA. Risk assessment guidance for superfund (RAGS): Part F. https://www.epa.gov/risk/risk-assessment-guidance-superfund-rags-part-f. (accessed on 29 Jul 2026).

37. USEPA. 40 CFR Parts 50, 53, and 58. Reconsideration of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter 2024. https://www.uschamber.com/assets/documents/Federal-Register-Rule-Reconsideration-of-the-National-Ambient-Air-Quality-Standards-for-Particulate-Matter-Final-Rule.pdf?utm_source.com. (accessed on 29 Jul 2026).

38. WHO. WHO global air quality guidelines: particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide. 2021. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228?utm_source.com. (accessed on 29 Jul 2026).

39. Government of Indonesia. Government Regulation No. 22 of 2021 on environmental protection and management. 2021. https://leap.unep.org/en/countries/id/national-legislation/government-regulation-no-22-2021-environmental-protection. (accessed on 29 Jul 2026).

40. Golbabaei, F.; Khadem, M. Air pollution in welding processes - assessment and control methods. In: Nejadkoorki F, editor. Current air quality issues. InTech; 2015.

41. Kim, J. Y.; Chen, J. C.; Boyce, P. D.; Christiani, D. C. Exposure to welding fumes is associated with acute systemic inflammatory responses. Occup. Environ. Med. 2005, 62, 157-63.

42. Lee, M.; Jung, S.; Do, G.; Yang, Y.; Kim, J.; Yoon, C. Measurement of airborne particles and volatile organic compounds produced during the heat treatment process in manufacturing welding materials. Saf. Health. Work. 2023, 14, 215-21.

43. Pili, S.; Lecca, L. I.; Pedrazzi, T.; et al. Exposure assessment to fine and ultrafine particulate matter during welding activity in the maintenance shop of a steelmaking factory. Heliyon 2024, 10, e40815.

44. Zhuang, J.; Diao, Y.; Shen, H. Numerical investigation on transport characteristics of high-temperature fine particles generated in a transiently welding process. Int. J. Heat. Mass. Transf. 2021, 176, 121471.

45. Vinnikov, D.; Tulekov, Z. Plasma cutting and exposure to PM2.5 metal aerosol in metalworking, Almaty, Kazakhstan, 2020. Occup. Environ. Med. 2021, 78, 218-20.

46. Insley, A. L.; Maskrey, J. R.; Hallett, L. A.; et al. Occupational survey of airborne metal exposures to welders, metalworkers, and bystanders in small fabrication shops. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2019, 16, 410-21.

47. Kornberg, T. G.; Stueckle, T. A.; Antonini, J. A.; et al. Potential toxicity and underlying mechanisms associated with pulmonary exposure to iron oxide nanoparticles: conflicting literature and unclear risk. Nanomaterials 2017, 7, 307.

48. Oprya, M.; Kiro, S.; Worobiec, A.; et al. Size distribution and chemical properties of welding fumes of inhalable particles. J. Aerosol. Sci. 2012, 45, 50-7.

49. Park, J. H.; Mudunkotuwa, I. A.; Kim, J. S.; et al. Physicochemical characterization of simulated welding fume from a spark discharge system. Aerosol. Sci. Technol. 2014, 47, 768-76.

50. Stanislawska, M.; Halatek, T.; Cieslak, M.; et al. Coarse, fine and ultrafine particles arising during welding - analysis of occupational exposure. Microchem. J. 2017, 135, 1-9.

51. Boman, C.; Nordin, A.; Boström, D.; Öhman, M. Characterization of inorganic particulate matter from residential combustion of pelletized biomass fuels. Energy. Fuels. 2004, 18, 338-48.

52. Johansson, L.; Tullin, C.; Leckner, B.; Sjövall, P. Particle emissions from biomass combustion in small combustors. Biomass. Bioenergy. 2003, 25, 435-46.

53. Cunat, P. J. Alloying elements in stainless steel and other chromium-containing alloys. 2004. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242216672_Alloying_Elements_in_Stainless_Steel_and_Other_Chromium-Containing_Alloys. (accessed on 29 Jul 2026).

54. Stebounova, L. V.; Gonzalez-Pech, N. I.; Peters, T. M.; Grassian, V. H. Physicochemical properties of air discharge-generated manganese oxide nanoparticles: comparison to welding fumes. Environ. Sci. Nano. 2018, 2018, 696-707.

55. Hanley, K. W.; Andrews, R.; Bertke, S.; Ashley, K. Manganese fractionation using a sequential extraction method to evaluate welders’ shielded metal arc welding exposures during construction projects in oil refineries. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2015, 12, 774-84.

56. Balkhyour, M. A.; Goknil, M. K. Total fume and metal concentrations during welding in selected factories in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health. 2010, 7, 2978-87.

57. Mehrifar, Y.; Bahrami, M.; Sidabadi, E.; Pirami, H. The effects of occupational exposure to manganese fume on neurobehavioral and neurocognitive functions: an analytical cross-sectional study among welders. EXCLI. J. 2020, 19, 372-86.

58. Ramzani, S.; Khanjani, N.; Mohammadyan, M.; Babanezhad, E.; Yazdani-Charati, J. Occupational exposure to manganese among welders: association between airborne manganese concentration and blood manganese levels. Health. Scope. 2022, 11, e120968.

59. Adams, T. N.; Butt, Y. M.; Batra, K.; Glazer, C. S. Cobalt related interstitial lung disease. Respir. Med. 2017, 129, 91-7.

60. Lin, I. F.; Shen, H. C.; Lin, S. F.; Chang, H. C.; Chen, T. T. Interstitial lung disease related to occupational hard metal exposure: two case reports. J. Med. Case. Rep. 2023, 17, 312.

61. Andersson, L.; Hedbrant, A.; Persson, A.; et al. Inflammatory and coagulatory markers and exposure to different size fractions of particle mass, number and surface area air concentrations in the Swedish hard metal industry, in particular to cobalt. Biomarkers 2021, 26, 557-69.

62. Bowler, R. M.; Gocheva, V.; Harris, M.; et al. Prospective study on neurotoxic effects in manganese-exposed bridge construction welders. Neurotoxicology 2011, 32, 596-605.

63. Mergler, D.; Baldwin, M. Early manifestations of manganese neurotoxicity in humans: an update. Environ. Res. 1997, 73, 92-100.

64. Kulshreshtha, D.; Ganguly, J.; Jog, M. Manganese and movement disorders: a review. J. Mov. Disord. 2021, 14, 93-102.

65. Prueitt, R. L.; Li, W.; Chang, Y. C.; Boffetta, P.; Goodman, J. E. Systematic review of the potential respiratory carcinogenicity of metallic nickel in humans. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2020, 50, 605-39.

66. Yang, S. Y.; Lin, J. M.; Lin, W. Y.; Chang, C. W. Cancer risk assessment for occupational exposure to chromium and nickel in welding fumes from pipeline construction, pressure container manufacturing, and shipyard building in Taiwan. J. Occup. Health. 2018, 60, 515-24.

67. Zaidi, S.; Sathawara, N.; Kumar, S.; Gandhi, S.; Parmar, C.; Saiyed, H. Development of indigenous local exhaust ventilation system: reduction of welders exposure to welding fumes. J. Occup. Health. 2004, 46, 323-8.

68. Flynn, M. R.; Susi, P. Local exhaust ventilation for the control of welding fumes in the construction industry - a literature review. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 2012, 56, 764-76.

69. Amiruddin, M. H.; Sumarwati, S.; Liyana, Zainudin. F.; Razali, N.; Salleh, M. R. M. Optimizing fume extraction: an empirical study on the performance of local exhaust ventilation (LEV) for welding in technical vocational laboratories. Lex. Localis. J. Local. Self. Gov. 2025, 23, 6285-95.

Journal of Environmental Exposure Assessment
ISSN 2771-5949 (Online)

Portico

All published articles are preserved here permanently:

https://www.portico.org/publishers/oae/

Portico

All published articles are preserved here permanently:

https://www.portico.org/publishers/oae/