REFERENCES

1. European Chemicals Agency. Regulatory strategy for flame retardants. 2023. https://www.actu-environnement.com/media/pdf/news-43052-strategie-echa-retardateurs-flammes.pdf. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

2. van der Veen, I.; de Boer, J. Phosphorus flame retardants: properties, production, environmental occurrence, toxicity and analysis. Chemosphere 2012, 88, 1119-53.

3. Blum, A.; Behl, M.; Birnbaum, L.; et al. Organophosphate ester flame retardants: are they a regrettable substitution for polybrominated diphenyl ethers? Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2019, 6, 638-49.

4. Hahladakis, J. N.; Velis, C. A.; Weber, R.; Iacovidou, E.; Purnell, P. An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling. J. Hazard. Mater. 2018, 344, 179-99.

5. Wei, G. L.; Li, D. Q.; Zhuo, M. N.; et al. Organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers: sources, occurrence, toxicity and human exposure. Environ. Pollut. 2015, 196, 29-46.

6. National Toxicology Program. Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of an isomeric mixture of tris(chloropropyl) phosphate administered in feed to Sprague Dawley (Hsd:Sprague Dawley SD) rats and B6C3F1/N mice. Natl. Toxicol. Program. Tech. Rep. Ser. 2023, NTP-TR-602.

7. Araki, A.; Bastiaensen, M.; Ait Bamai, Y.; et al. Associations between allergic symptoms and phosphate flame retardants in dust and their urinary metabolites among school children. Environ. Int. 2018, 119, 438-46.

8. Mendy, A.; Percy, Z.; Braun, J. M.; et al. Prenatal exposure to replacement flame retardants and organophosphate esters and childhood adverse respiratory outcomes. Environ. Res. 2024, 240, 117523.

9. Chupeau, Z.; Mercier, F.; Bot, B. L.; et al. Early-life exposure to organophosphate esters and child neurodevelopment in the French national birth cohort. Environ. Int. 2025, 200, 109558.

10. European Chemicals Agency. Screening Report. An assessment of whether the use of TCEP, TCPP and TDCP in articles should be restricted. 2018. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/13641/screening_report_tcep_tcpp_td-cp_en.pdf/e0960aa7-f703-499c-24ff-fba627060698. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

11. European Chemicals Agency. Candidate List of substances of very high concern for Authorisation. 2025. https://echa.europa.eu/candidate-list-table?p_p_id=disslists_WAR_disslistsportlet&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=normal&p_p_mode=view&_disslists_WAR_disslistsportlet_cur=1&_disslists_WAR_disslistsportlet_haz_detailed_concern=&_disslists_WAR_disslistsportlet_su. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

12. Bastiaensen, M.; Gys, C.; Colles, A.; et al. Exposure levels, determinants and risk assessment of organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers in adolescents (14-15 years) from the Flemish Environment and Health Study. Environ. Int. 2021, 147, 106368.

13. Hou, R.; Xu, Y.; Wang, Z. Review of OPFRs in animals and humans: absorption, bioaccumulation, metabolism, and internal exposure research. Chemosphere 2016, 153, 78-90.

14. Liu, Y.; Li, Y.; Dong, S.; et al. The risk and impact of organophosphate esters on the development of female-specific cancers: comparative analysis of patients with benign and malignant tumors. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 404, 124020.

15. Gbadamosi, M. R.; Abdallah, M. A.; Harrad, S. A critical review of human exposure to organophosphate esters with a focus on dietary intake. Sci. Total. Environ. 2021, 771, 144752.

16. Guo, Y.; Liang, C.; Zeng, M. X.; et al. An overview of organophosphate esters and their metabolites in humans: analytical methods, occurrence, and biomonitoring. Sci. Total. Environ. 2022, 848, 157669.

17. Li, Y.; Li, D.; Chen, J.; et al. Presence of organophosphate esters in plasma of patients with hypertension in Hubei Province, China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2020, 27, 24059-69.

18. Liu, Y.; Gong, S.; Ye, L.; et al. Organophosphate (OP) diesters and a review of sources, chemical properties, environmental occurrence, adverse effects, and future directions. Environ. Int. 2021, 155, 106691.

19. Völkel, W.; Fuchs, V.; Wöckner, M.; Fromme, H. Toxicokinetic of tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) in humans following single oral administration. Arch. Toxicol. 2018, 92, 651-60.

20. Christia, C.; Tang, B.; Yin, S. S.; et al. Simultaneous determination of legacy and emerging organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers in indoor dust using liquid and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry: method development, validation, and application. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2019, 411, 7015-25.

21. Health Canada. Chemicals and children’s health. 2024. https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-substances/fact-sheets/chemicals-childrens-health.html. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

22. van der Schyff, V.; Kalina, J.; Govarts, E.; et al. Exposure to flame retardants in European children - results from the HBM4EU aligned studies. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health. 2023, 247, 114070.

23. World Health Organization. Chemical Safety. https://www.who.int/health-topics/chemical-safety. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

24. Bastiaensen, M.; Ait Bamai, Y.; Araki, A.; et al. Biomonitoring of organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers in children: associations with house dust and housing characteristics in Japan. Environ. Res. 2019, 172, 543-51.

25. National Center for Environmental Health (U.S.). Division of Laboratory Sciences. Fourth National Report on human exposure to environmental chemicals. 2019. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/75823. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

26. Chen, F. S.; Chen, C. C.; Tsai, C. C.; et al. Urinary levels of organophosphate flame retardants metabolites in a young population from Southern Taiwan and potential health effects. Front. Endocrinol. 2023, 14, 1173449.

27. Hu, L.; Yu, M.; Li, Y.; et al. Association of exposure to organophosphate esters with increased blood pressure in children and adolescents. Environ. Pollut. 2022, 295, 118685.

28. Yu, M.; Li, X.; Liu, B.; et al. Organophosphate esters in children and adolescents in Liuzhou city, China: concentrations, exposure assessment, and predictors. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2022, 29, 39310-22.

29. Zeng, Y.; Goudarzi, H.; Ait Bamai, Y.; et al. Exposure to organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers is positively associated with wheeze and FeNO and eosinophil levels among school-aged children: the Hokkaido study. Environ. Int. 2023, 181, 108278.

30. Jung, J.; Jo, A. R.; Kim, Y.; et al. Phthalate and nonphthalate plasticizer exposure among children of Korea, Thailand, Indonesia, and Bangladesh: occurrences and risk comparison. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 59, 17431-42.

31. Lee, I.; Pälmke, C.; Ringbeck, B.; et al. Urinary concentrations of major phthalate and alternative plasticizer metabolites in children of Thailand, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia, and associated risks. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55, 16526-37.

32. Bastiaensen, M.; Xu, F.; Been, F.; Van den Eede, N.; Covaci, A. Simultaneous determination of 14 urinary biomarkers of exposure to organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers by LC-MS/MS. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2018, 410, 7871-80.

33. Barr, D. B.; Wilder, L. C.; Caudill, S. P.; Gonzalez, A. J.; Needham, L. L.; Pirkle, J. L. Urinary creatinine concentrations in the U.S. population: implications for urinary biologic monitoring measurements. Environ. Health. Perspect. 2005, 113, 192-200.

34. James, R. A.; Hertz-Picciotto, I.; Willman, E.; Keller, J. A.; Charles, M. J. Determinants of serum polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides measured in women from the child health and development study cohort, 1963-1967. Environ. Health. Perspect. 2002, 110, 617-24.

35. West, R. M. Best practice in statistics: the use of log transformation. Ann. Clin. Biochem. 2022, 59, 162-5.

36. Gys, C.; Bastiaensen, M.; Bruckers, L.; et al. Determinants of exposure levels of bisphenols in flemish adolescents. Environ. Res. 2021, 193, 110567.

37. Colles, A.; Bruckers, L.; Den Hond, E.; et al. Perfluorinated substances in the Flemish population (Belgium): levels and determinants of variability in exposure. Chemosphere 2020, 242, 125250.

38. Kim, S. S.; Meeker, J. D.; Carroll, R.; et al. Urinary trace metals individually and in mixtures in association with preterm birth. Environ. Int. 2018, 121, 582-90.

39. O’Brien, K. M.; Upson, K.; Cook, N. R.; Weinberg, C. R. Environmental chemicals in urine and blood: improving methods for creatinine and lipid adjustment. Environ. Health. Perspect. 2016, 124, 220-7.

40. Beckford, K.; Grimes, C. A.; Margerison, C.; et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 24-h urinary output of children and adolescents: impact on the assessment of iodine status using urinary biomarkers. Eur. J. Nutr. 2020, 59, 3113-31.

41. European Chemicals Agency. ECHA CHEM. 2025. https://echa.europa.eu/nl/echa-chem. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

42. US, E. P. A. Comptox chemicals dashboard. 2024. https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

43. European Chemicals Agency. Guidance on information requirements and chemical safety assessment. Part E: risk characterisation. 2016. https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/17224/information_requirements_part_e_en.pdf/1da6cadd-895a-46f0-884b-00307c0438fd. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

44. Apel, P.; Kortenkamp, A.; Koch, H. M.; et al. Time course of phthalate cumulative risks to male developmental health over a 27-year period: biomonitoring samples of the German Environmental Specimen Bank. Environ. Int. 2020, 137, 105467.

45. den Ouden, F.; Cseresznye, A.; Engelen, L.; et al. Chemical exposure in childhood: a study on organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers in a Flemish birth cohort. Environ. Res. 2026, 288, 123275.

46. Que, D. E.; den Ouden, F.; Bosschaerts, S.; et al. Trends of organophosphate ester flame retardant metabolites in age- and sex-stratified pooled Australian urine samples from the past decade (2012-2023). Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 59, 8997-9007.

47. Cequier, E.; Sakhi, A. K.; Marcé, R. M.; Becher, G.; Thomsen, C. Human exposure pathways to organophosphate triesters - a biomonitoring study of mother-child pairs. Environ. Int. 2015, 75, 159-65.

48. UN Trade and Development. Country classifications. https://unctadstat.unctad.org/EN/Classifications.html. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

49. Rosolen, V.; Giordani, E.; Mariuz, M.; et al. Cognitive performance and exposure to organophosphate flame retardants in children: evidence from a cross-sectional analysis of two European mother-child cohorts. Toxics 2023, 11, 878.

50. Egypt’s National Food Safety Authority. Decision No. 17/2022. https://voyager.fas.usda.gov/voyager/navigo/show?id=187a5afc-b3f0-519d-9868-46dcdc7b3eb6&disp=default. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

51. Presidential Decree Egypt. Law number 4 of 1994. Promulgating the environment law. https://www.gafi.gov.eg/English/StartaBusiness/Laws-and-Regulations/PublishingImages/Pages/BusinessLaws/enviromental.pdf. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

52. Wang, Y.; Peris, A.; Rifat, M. R.; et al. Measuring exposure of e-waste dismantlers in Dhaka Bangladesh to organophosphate esters and halogenated flame retardants using silicone wristbands and T-shirts. Sci. Total. Environ. 2020, 720, 137480.

53. Hazardous substance act B.E. 2535. https://www.diw.go.th/webdiw/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/law-haz-29032535-eng.pdf. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

54. Ministry of Industry of the Republic of Indonesia. Regulation of the Minister of Industry of the Republic of Indonesia Number 52 of 2020 concerning Green Industry Standards for the Laminated Safety Glass Industry. 2020. https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/167416/permenperin-no-52-tahun-2020. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).

55. Presidential Decree No. 33514. Enforcement decree of the persistent pollutants control act. 2023. https://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_mobile/viewer.do?hseq=68807&type=part&key=39. (accessed on 5 Aug 2026).