REFERENCES
1. Watanabe, T.; Kataoka, Y.; Hayashi, K.; Matsuda, R.; Uneyama, C. Dietary exposure of the Japanese general population to elements: total diet study 2013-2018. Food. Saf. 2022, 10, 83-101.
2. Pokharel, A.; Wu, F. Dietary exposure to cadmium from six common foods in the United States. Food. Chem. Toxicol. 2023, 178, 113873.
3. Egger, A. E.; Grabmann, G.; Gollmann-Tepeköylü, C.; et al. Chemical imaging and assessment of cadmium distribution in the human body. Metallomics 2019, 11, 2010-9.
4. Almerud, P.; Zamaratskaia, G.; Lindroos, A. K.; et al. Cadmium, total mercury, and lead in blood and associations with diet, sociodemographic factors, and smoking in Swedish adolescents. Environ. Res. 2021, 197, 110991.
5. Hill, D. T.; Jandev, V.; Petroni, M.; et al. Airborne levels of cadmium are correlated with urinary cadmium concentrations among young children living in the New York state city of Syracuse, USA. Environ. Res. 2023, 223, 115450.
6. Johri, N.; Jacquillet, G.; Unwin, R. Heavy metal poisoning: the effects of cadmium on the kidney. Biometals 2010, 23, 783-92.
7. Satarug, S.; Vesey, D. A.; Ruangyuttikarn, W.; Nishijo, M.; Gobe, G. C.; Phelps, K. R. The source and pathophysiologic significance of excreted cadmium. Toxics 2019, 7, 55.
8. Phelps, K. R.; Gosmanova, E. O. A generic method for analysis of plasma concentrations. Clin. Nephrol. 2020, 94, 43-9.
9. Heymsfield, S. B.; Arteaga, C.; McManus, C.; Smith, J.; Moffitt, S. Measurement of muscle mass in humans: validity of the 24-hour urinary creatinine method. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1983, 37, 478-94.
10. Argyropoulos, C. P.; Chen, S. S.; Ng, Y. H.; et al. Rediscovering beta-2 microglobulin as a biomarker across the spectrum of kidney diseases. Front. Med. 2017, 4, 73.
11. Gauthier, C.; Nguyen-Simonnet, H.; Vincent, C.; Revillard, J. P.; Pellet, M. V. Renal tubular absorption of beta 2 microglobulin. Kidney. Int. 1984, 26, 170-5.
12. Norden, A. G.; Lapsley, M.; Lee, P. J.; et al. Glomerular protein sieving and implications for renal failure in Fanconi syndrome. Kidney. Int. 2001, 60, 1885-92.
13. Polesel, M.; Kaminska, M.; Haenni, D.; et al. Spatiotemporal organisation of protein processing in the kidney. Nat. Commun. 2022, 13, 5732.
14. Satarug, S.; Vesey, D. A.; Gobe, G. C.; Phelps, K. R. The pathogenesis of albuminuria in cadmium nephropathy. Curr. Res. Toxicol. 2024, 6, 100140.
15. Zavala-Guevara, I. P.; Ortega-Romero, M. S.; Narváez-Morales, J.; et al. Increased endocytosis of cadmium-metallothionein through the 24p3 receptor in an in vivo model with reduced proximal tubular activity. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 7262.
16. Thévenod, F.; Herbrechter, R.; Schlabs, C.; et al. Role of the SLC22A17/lipocalin-2 receptor in renal endocytosis of proteins/metalloproteins: a focus on iron- and cadmium-binding proteins. Am. J. Physiol. Renal. Physiol. 2023, 325, F564-77.
17. Bernier, G. M.; Conrad, M. E. Catabolsm of human beta-2-microglobulin by the rat kidney. Am. J. Physiol. 1969, 217, 1359-62.
18. Karlsson, F. A.; Groth, T.; Sege, K.; Wibell, L.; Peterson, P. A. Turnover in humans of beta 2-microglobulin: the constant chain of HLA-antigens. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 1980, 10, 293-300.
19. Sumpio, B. E.; Maack, T. Kinetics, competition, and selectivity of tubular absorption of proteins. Am. J. Physiol. 1982, 243, F379-92.
20. Peterson, P. A.; Evrin, P. E.; Berggård, I. Differentiation of glomerular, tubular, and normal proteinuria: determinations of urinary excretion of beta-2-macroglobulin, albumin, and total protein. J. Clin. Invest. 1969, 48, 1189-98.
21. Viberti, G. C.; Pickup, J. C.; Jarrett, R. J.; Keen, H. Effect of control of blood glucose on urinary excretion of albumin and beta2 microglobulin in insulin-dependent diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 1979, 300, 638-41.
22. Watts, G. F.; Powell, M.; Rowe, D. J.; Shaw, K. M. Low-molecular-weight proteinuria in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a study of the urinary excretion of beta 2-microglobulin and retinol-binding protein in alkalinized patients with and without microalbuminuria. Diabetes. Res. 1989, 12, 31-6.
23. Groop, L.; Mäkipernaa, A.; Stenman, S.; DeFronzo, R. A.; Teppo, A. M. Urinary excretion of kappa light chains in patients with diabetes mellitus. Kidney. Int. 1990, 37, 1120-5.
24. Satarug, S.; Yimthiang, S.; Pouyfung, P.; Khamphaya, T.; Vesey, D. A. Cadmium-induced tubular dysfunction in type 2 diabetes: a population-based cross-sectional study. Toxics 2023, 11, 390.
25. Yimthiang, S.; Vesey, D. A.; Pouyfung, P.; Khamphaya, T.; Gobe, G. C.; Satarug, S. Chronic kidney disease induced by cadmium and diabetes: a quantitative case-control study. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 9050.
26. Han, E.; Kim, M. K.; Lee, Y. H.; Kim, H. S.; Lee, B. W. Association between nonalbumin proteinuria and renal tubular damage of N-acetyl-β-d-glucosaminidase and its clinical relevance in patients with type 2 diabetes without albuminuria. J. Diabetes. Complications. 2019, 33, 255-60.
27. Thethi, T. K.; Batuman, V. Challenging the conventional wisdom on diabetic nephropathy: is microalbuminuria the earliest event? J. Diabetes. Complications. 2019, 33, 191-2.
28. Adokwe, J. B.; Waeyeng, D.; Suwan, K.; et al. Plant-based diet and glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: evidence from a Thai Health-Promoting Hospital. Nutrients 2024, 16, 619.
29. Xu, R.; Tan, X.; Li, T.; Liu, S.; Li, Y.; Li, H. Norepinephrine-induced AuPd aerogels with peroxidase- and glucose oxidase-like activity for colorimetric determination of glucose. Mikrochim. Acta. 2021, 188, 362.
30. Apple, F.; Bandt, C.; Prosch, A.; Erlandson, G.; Holmstrom, V.; Scholen, J.; Googins, M. Creatinine clearance: enzymatic vs Jaffé determinations of creatinine in plasma and urine. Clin. Chem. , 32, 388-90.
31. Trzcinka-Ochocka, M.; Brodzka, R.; Janasik, B. Useful and fast method for blood lead and cadmium determination using ICP-MS and GF-AAS; validation parameters. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 2016, 30, 130-9.
32. Hornung, R. W.; Reed, L. D. Estimation of average concentration in the presence of nondetectable values. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 1990, 5, 46-51.
33. Levey, A. S.; Stevens, L. A.; Schmid, C. H.; et al.; CKD-EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration). A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann. Intern. Med. 2009, 150, 604-12.
34. Hayashi, T.; Nogawa, K.; Watanabe, Y.; et al. Benchmark dose of urinary cadmium for assessing renal tubular and glomerular function in a cadmium-polluted area of Japan. Toxics 2024, 12, 836.
35. Satarug, S.; Vesey, D. A.; Nishijo, M.; Ruangyuttikarn, W.; Gobe, G. C.; Phelps, K. R. The effect of cadmium on GFR is clarified by normalization of excretion rates to creatinine clearance. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22, 1762.
36. Portale, A. A.; Halloran, B. P.; Morris, R. C. Jr. Dietary intake of phosphorus modulates the circadian rhythm in serum concentration of phosphorus. Implications for the renal production of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. J. Clin. Invest. 1987, 80, 1147-54.
37. Cappuccio, F. P.; Buchanan, L. A.; Ji, C.; Siani, A.; Miller, M. A. Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on the effects of potassium supplements on serum potassium and creatinine. BMJ. Open. 2016, 6, e011716.
38. Satarug, S.; Phelps, K. R. Cadmium exposure and toxicity. Metal. Toxicology. Handbook. , CRC Press, 2020; pp 219-72.
39. Cheung, C. L.; Lam, K. S.; Cheung, B. M. Serum β-2 microglobulin predicts mortality in people with diabetes. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 2013, 169, 1-7.
40. Kim, M. K.; Yun, K. J.; Chun, H. J.; et al. Clinical utility of serum beta-2-microglobulin as a predictor of diabetic complications in patients with type 2 diabetes without renal impairment. Diabetes. Metab. 2014, 40, 459-65.
41. Poortmans, J.; Dorchy, H.; Toussaint, D. Urinary excretion of total proteins, albumin, and beta 2-microglobulin during rest and exercise in diabetic adolescents with and without retinopathy. Diabetes. Care. 1982, 5, 617-23.
42. Russo, L. M.; Sandoval, R. M.; McKee, M.; et al. The normal kidney filters nephrotic levels of albumin retrieved by proximal tubule cells: retrieval is disrupted in nephrotic states. Kidney. Int. 2007, 71, 504-13.
43. Dickson, L. E.; Wagner, M. C.; Sandoval, R. M.; Molitoris, B. A. The proximal tubule and albuminuria: really! J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2014, 25, 443-53.
44. Comper, W. D.; Vuchkova, J.; McCarthy, K. J. New insights into proteinuria/albuminuria. Front. Physiol. 2022, 13, 991756.