REFERENCES
1. Lakatta EG. So! What′s aging? Is cardiovascular aging a disease? J Mol Cell Cardiol 2015;83:1-13.
2. Nichols M, Townsen N, Scarborough P, et al. European cardiovascular disease statistics 2012 editon. Avaliable from: https://www.escardio.org/static-file/Escardio/Press-media/press-releases/2013/EU-cardiovascular-disease-statistics-2012.pdf [Last accessed on 22 Jan 2024].
3. Bennett MR, Sinha S, Owens GK. Vascular smooth muscle cells in atherosclerosis. Circ Res 2016;118:692-702.
4. Reynolds JL, Joannides AJ, Skepper JN, et al. Human vascular smooth muscle cells undergo vesicle-mediated calcification in response to changes in extracellular calcium and phosphate concentrations: a potential mechanism for accelerated vascular calcification in ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004;15:2857-67.
5. Brunner EJ, Shipley MJ, Witte DR, et al. Arterial stiffness, physical function, and functional limitation: the Whitehall II study. Hypertension 2011;57:1003-9.
6. Kim ED, Tanaka H, Ballew SH, et al. Associations between kidney disease measures and regional pulse wave velocity in a large community-based cohort: the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study. Am J Kidney Dis 2018;72:682-90.
7. Wehrum T, Dragonu I, Strecker C, et al. Influence of pulse wave velocity on atherosclerosis and blood flow reversal in the aorta: a 4-dimensional flow magnetic resonance imaging study in acute stroke patients and matched controls. J Thorac Imaging 2022;37:42-8.
8. Hughes TM, Kuller LH, Barinas-Mitchell EJ, et al. Pulse wave velocity is associated with β-amyloid deposition in the brains of very elderly adults. Neurology 2013;81:1711-8.
9. Rouch L, Cestac P, Sallerin B, et al. Pulse wave velocity is associated with greater risk of dementia in mild cognitive impairment patients. Hypertension 2018;72:1109-16.
10. Laurent S, Boutouyrie P, Asmar R, et al. Aortic stiffness is an independent predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2001;37:1236-41.
11. Sutton-Tyrrell K, Najjar SS, Boudreau RM, et al. Health ABC Study. Elevated aortic pulse wave velocity, a marker of arterial stiffness, predicts cardiovascular events in well-functioning older adults. Circulation 2005;111:3384-90.
12. Mas-Bargues C, Borrás C, Alique M. The contribution of extracellular vesicles from senescent endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cells to vascular calcification. Front Cardiovasc Med 2022;9:854726.
13. Jellinger KA. Alzheimer disease and cerebrovascular pathology: an update. J Neural Transm 2002;109:813-36.
14. Itoh Y, Yamada M, Hayakawa M, Otomo E, Miyatake T. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy: a significant cause of cerebellar as well as lobar cerebral hemorrhage in the elderly. J Neurol Sci 1993;116:135-41.
15. Davies HA, Caamaño-Gutiérrez E, Chim YH, et al. Idiopathic degenerative thoracic aneurysms are associated with increased aortic medial amyloid. Amyloid 2019;26:148-55.
16. Abedin M, Tintut Y, Demer LL. Vascular calcification: mechanisms and clinical ramifications. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004;24:1161-70.
17. McClelland RL, Chung H, Detrano R, Post W, Kronmal RA. Distribution of coronary artery calcium by race, gender, and age: results from the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA). Circulation 2006;113:30-7.
18. Shaw LJ, Raggi P, Berman DS, Callister TQ. Coronary artery calcium as a measure of biologic age. Atherosclerosis 2006;188:112-9.
19. Jeziorska M, McCollum C, Wooley DE. Observations on bone formation and remodelling in advanced atherosclerotic lesions of human carotid arteries. Virchows Arch 1998;433:559-65.
20. Mackey RH, Venkitachalam L, Sutton-tyrrell K. Calcifications, arterial stiffness and atherosclerosis. Adv Cardiol 2007;44:234-244.
21. Doherty TM, Fitzpatrick LA, Inoue D, et al. Molecular, endocrine, and genetic mechanisms of arterial calcification. Endocr Rev 2004;25:629-72.
22. London GM, Guérin AP, Marchais SJ, Métivier F, Pannier B, Adda H. Arterial media calcification in end-stage renal disease: impact on all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2003;18:1731-40.
23. Niskanen L, Siitonen O, Suhonen M, Uusitupa MI. Medial artery calcification predicts cardiovascular mortality in patients with NIDDM. Diabetes Care 1994;17:1252-6.
24. Chiti F, Dobson CM. Protein misfolding, functional amyloid, and human disease. Annu Rev Biochem 2006;75:333-66.
25. Wang Y, Feng X, Shen B, Ma J, Zhao W. Is vascular amyloidosis intertwined with arterial aging, hypertension and atherosclerosis? Front Genet 2017;8:126.
26. Cornwell GG 3rd, Johnson KH, Westermark P. The age related amyloids: a growing family of unique biochemical substances. J Clin Pathol 1995;48:984-9.
27. Cornwell GG 3rd, Westermark P. Senile amyloidosis: a protean manifestation of the aging process. J Clin Pathol 1980;33:1146-52.
28. Mucchiano G, Cornwell GG 3rd, Westermark P. Senile aortic amyloid. Evidence for two distinct forms of localized deposits. Am J Pathol 1992;140:871-7.
29. Galant NJ, Westermark P, Higaki JN, Chakrabartty A. Transthyretin amyloidosis: an under-recognized neuropathy and cardiomyopathy. Clin Sci 2017;131:395-409.
30. Haggqvist B, Naslund J, Sletten K, et al. Medin: an integral fragment of aortic smooth muscle cell-produced lactadherin forms the most common human amyloid. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999;96:8669-74.
31. Larsson A, Peng S, Persson H, et al. Lactadherin binds to elastin - a starting point for medin amyloid formation? Amyloid 2006;13:78-85.
32. Weller RO, Boche D, Nicoll JA. Microvasculature changes and cerebral amyloid angiopathy in Alzheimer’s disease and their potential impact on therapy. Acta Neuropathol 2009;118:87-102.
33. Keable A, Fenna K, Yuen HM, et al. Deposition of amyloid β in the walls of human leptomeningeal arteries in relation to perivascular drainage pathways in cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Biochim Biophys Acta 2016;1862:1037-46.
34. Baker DJ, Childs BG, Durik M, et al. Naturally occurring p16(Ink4a)-positive cells shorten healthy lifespan. Nature 2016;530:184-9.
35. Girndt M, Seibert E. Premature cardiovascular disease in chronic renal failure (CRF): a model for an advanced ageing process. Exp Gerontol 2010;45:797-800.
36. Burton DG, Matsubara H, Ikeda K. Pathophysiology of vascular calcification: pivotal role of cellular senescence in vascular smooth muscle cells. Exp Gerontol 2010;45:819-24.
37. Whitehead M, Yusoff S, Ahmad S, et al. Vascular smooth muscle cell senescence accelerates medin aggregation via small extracellular vesicle secretion and extracellular matrix reorganization. Aging Cell 2023;22:e13746.
38. Kapustin AN, Shanahan CM. Emerging roles for vascular smooth muscle cell exosomes in calcification and coagulation. J Physiol 2016;594:2905-14.
39. Kapustin AN, Chatrou ML, Drozdov I, et al. Vascular smooth muscle cell calcification is mediated by regulated exosome secretion. Circ Res 2015;116:1312-23.
40. van Niel G. Study of exosomes shed new light on physiology of amyloidogenesis. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2016;36:327-42.
41. Owens GK, Kumar MS, Wamhoff BR. Molecular regulation of vascular smooth muscle cell differentiation in development and disease. Physiol Rev 2004;84:767-801.
42. Rudijanto A. The role of vascular smooth muscle cells on the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Acta Med Indones 2007;39:86-93. Avaliable from: http://inaactamedica.org/archives/2007/17933075.pdf [Last accessed on 22 Jan 2024].
43. Steucke KE, Tracy PV, Hald ES, Hall JL, Alford PW. Vascular smooth muscle cell functional contractility depends on extracellular mechanical properties. J Biomech 2015;48:3044-51.
44. Kapustin A, Tsakali SS, Whitehead M, et al. Extracellular vesicles stimulate smooth muscle cell migration by presenting collagen VI. bioRxiv 2023;1:551257.
45. Goodman WG, Goldin J, Kuizon BD, et al. Coronary-artery calcification in young adults with end-stage renal disease who are undergoing dialysis. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1478-83.
46. Bi W, Huang W, Whitworth DJ, et al. Haploinsufficiency of Sox9 results in defective cartilage primordia and premature skeletal mineralization. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:6698-703.
47. Wilkie AO, Tang Z, Elanko N, et al. Functional haploinsufficiency of the human homeobox gene MSX2 causes defects in skull ossification. Nat Genet 2000;24:387-90.
48. Komori T. Regulation of bone development and extracellular matrix protein genes by RUNX2. Cell Tissue Res 2010;339:189-95.
49. Shanahan CM, Crouthamel MH, Kapustin A, Giachelli CM. Arterial calcification in chronic kidney disease: key roles for calcium and phosphate. Circ Res 2011;109:697-711.
50. Ueland T, Dahl CP, Gullestad L, et al. Circulating levels of non-phosphorylated undercarboxylated matrix Gla protein are associated with disease severity in patients with chronic heart failure. Clin Sci 2011;121:119-27.
51. Proudfoot D, Skepper JN, Hegyi L, Bennett MR, Shanahan CM, Weissberg PL. Apoptosis regulates human vascular calcification in vitro: evidence for initiation of vascular calcification by apoptotic bodies. Circ Res 2000;87:1055-62.
52. Naiki H, Hashimoto N, Suzuki S, Kimura H, Nakakuki K, Gejyo F. Establishment of a kinetic model of dialysis-related amyloid fibril extension in vitro. Amyloid 1997;4:223-32.
53. Serio TR, Cashikar AG, Kowal AS, et al. Nucleated conformational conversion and the replication of conformational information by a prion determinant. Science 2000;289:1317-21.
54. MacRaild CA, Stewart CR, Mok YF, et al. Non-fibrillar components of amyloid deposits mediate the self-association and tangling of amyloid fibrils. J Biol Chem 2004;279:21038-45.
55. Peng S, Glennert J, Westermark P. Medin-amyloid: a recently characterized age-associated arterial amyloid form affects mainly arteries in the upper part of the body. Amyloid 2005;12:96-102.
56. Miura Y, Tsumoto H, Iwamoto M, et al. Age-associated proteomic alterations in human aortic media. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2019;19:1054-62.
57. Cheng M, Li BY, Li XL, et al. Correlation between serum lactadherin and pulse wave velocity and cardiovascular risk factors in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2012;95:125-31.
58. Wang M, Fu Z, Wu J, et al. MFG-E8 activates proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells via integrin signaling. Aging Cell 2012;11:500-8.
59. Chiang HY, Chu PH, Chen SC, Lee TH. MFG-E8 promotes osteogenic transdifferentiation of smooth muscle cells and vascular calcification by regulating TGF-β1 signaling. Commun Biol 2022;5:364.
60. Chiang HY, Chu PH, Lee TH. MFG-E8 mediates arterial aging by promoting the proinflammatory phenotype of vascular smooth muscle cells. J Biomed Sci 2019;26:61.
61. Peng S, Westermark GT, Näslund J, Häggqvist B, Glennert J, Westermark P. Medin and medin-amyloid in ageing inflamed and non-inflamed temporal arteries. J Pathol 2002;196:91-6.
62. Coria F, Castano EM, Frangione B. Brain amyloid in normal aging and cerebral amyloid angiopathy is antigenically related to Alzheimer’s disease beta-protein. Am J Pathol 1987;129:422-8.
63. Kawai M, Kalaria RN, Cras P, et al. Degeneration of vascular muscle cells in cerebral amyloid angiopathy of Alzheimer disease. Brain Res 1993;623:142-6.
64. Attems J. Sporadic cerebral amyloid angiopathy: pathology, clinical implications, and possible pathomechanisms. Acta Neuropathol 2005;110:345-59.
65. Vonsattel JP, Myers RH, Hedley-Whyte ET, Ropper AH, Bird ED, Richardson EP Jr. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy without and with cerebral hemorrhages: a comparative histological study. Ann Neurol 1991;30:637-49.
66. De Meyer GR, De Cleen DM, Cooper S, et al. Platelet phagocytosis and processing of β-amyloid precursor protein as a mechanism of macrophage activation in atherosclerosis. Circ Res 2002;90:1197-204.
67. Kokjohn TA, Van Vickle GD, Maarouf CL, et al. Chemical characterization of pro-inflammatory amyloid-β peptides in human atherosclerotic lesions and platelets. Biochim Biophys Acta 2011;1812:1508-14.
68. Stamatelopoulos K, Sibbing D, Rallidis LS, et al. Amyloid-β (1-40) and the risk of death from cardiovascular causes in patients with coronary heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2015;65:904-16.
69. Stamatelopoulos K, Stellos K. Circulating amyloid-β (1-40) predicts clinical outcomes in patients with heart failure. Rev Esp Cardiol 2017;70:905-6.
70. Erusalimsky JD. Vascular endothelial senescence: from mechanisms to pathophysiology. J Appl Physiol 2009;106:326-32.
71. Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Spiegelhalter DJ, Georgakopoulos D, Robinson J, Deanfield JE. Aging is associated with endothelial dysfunction in healthy men years before the age-related decline in women. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994;24:471-6.
72. Nakano-Kurimoto R, Ikeda K, Uraoka M, et al. Replicative senescence of vascular smooth muscle cells enhances the calcification through initiating the osteoblastic transition. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2009;297:H1673-84.
73. Liu Y, Drozdov I, Shroff R, Beltran LE, Shanahan CM. Prelamin A accelerates vascular calcification via activation of the DNA damage response and senescence-associated secretory phenotype in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ Res 2013;112:e99-109.
74. Lim K, Lu TS, Molostvov G, et al. Vascular Klotho deficiency potentiates the development of human artery calcification and mediates resistance to fibroblast growth factor 23. Circulation 2012;125:2243-55.
75. Hu MC, Shi M, Zhang J, et al. Klotho deficiency causes vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2011;22:124-36.
76. Kovacic JC, Moreno P, Nabel EG, Hachinski V, Fuster V. Cellular senescence, vascular disease, and aging: part 2 of a 2-part review: clinical vascular disease in the elderly. Circulation 2011;123:1900-10.
77. Kovacic JC, Moreno P, Hachinski V, Nabel EG, Fuster V. Cellular senescence, vascular disease, and aging: part 1 of a 2-part review. Circulation 2011;123:1650-60.
78. Zickler D, Luecht C, Willy K, et al. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha in uraemic serum promotes osteoblastic transition and calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells via extracellular signal-regulated kinases and activator protein 1/c-FOS-mediated induction of interleukin 6 expression. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2018;33:574-85.
79. Grootaert MOJ, Moulis M, Roth L, et al. Vascular smooth muscle cell death, autophagy and senescence in atherosclerosis. Cardiovasc Res 2018;114:622-34.
80. Matthews C, Gorenne I, Scott S, et al. Vascular smooth muscle cells undergo telomere-based senescence in human atherosclerosis: effects of telomerase and oxidative stress. Circ Res 2006;99:156-64.
81. Micco R, Krizhanovsky V, Baker D, d’Adda di Fagagna F. Cellular senescence in ageing: from mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2021;22:75-95.
82. Jeck WR, Siebold AP, Sharpless NE. Review: a meta-analysis of GWAS and age-associated diseases. Aging Cell 2012;11:727-31.
83. Chow AK, Cena J, Schulz R. Acute actions and novel targets of matrix metalloproteinases in the heart and vasculature. Br J Pharmacol 2007;152:189-205.
84. Chen NX, O'Neill KD, Chen X, Kiattisunthorn K, Gattone VH, Moe SM. Activation of arterial matrix metalloproteinases leads to vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease. Am J Nephrol 2011;34:211-9.
85. Zhao YG, Meng FX, Li BW, et al. Gelatinases promote calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells by up-regulating bone morphogenetic protein-2. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2016;470:287-93.
86. Pai A, Leaf EM, El-Abbadi M, Giachelli CM. Elastin degradation and vascular smooth muscle cell phenotype change precede cell loss and arterial medial calcification in a uremic mouse model of chronic kidney disease. Am J Pathol 2011;178:764-73.
87. Ting KK, Coleman P, Kim HJ, et al. Vascular senescence and leak are features of the early breakdown of the blood-brain barrier in Alzheimer's disease models. Geroscience 2023;45:3307-31.
88. Zhang P, Kishimoto Y, Grammatikakis I, et al. Senolytic therapy alleviates Aβ-associated oligodendrocyte progenitor cell senescence and cognitive deficits in an Alzheimer's disease model. Nat Neurosci 2019;22:719-28.
90. Baker DJ, Wijshake T, Tchkonia T, et al. Clearance of p16Ink4a-positive senescent cells delays ageing-associated disorders. Nature 2011;479:232-6.
91. Rajendran L, Honsho M, Zahn TR, et al. Alzheimer's disease β-amyloid peptides are released in association with exosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:11172-7.
92. Rajendran L, Knobloch M, Geiger KD, et al. Increased Aβ production leads to intracellular accumulation of Aβ in flotillin-1-positive endosomes. Neurodegener Dis 2007;4:164-70.
93. Whitehead M, Antonazzi M, Shanahan CM. Senescence and extracellular vesicles: novel partners in vascular amyloidosis. Aging 2023;15:1232-4.
94. Raposo G, Stoorvogel W. Extracellular vesicles: exosomes, microvesicles, and friends. J Cell Biol 2013;200:373-83.
95. Simons M, Raposo G. Exosomes - vesicular carriers for intercellular communication. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2009;21:575-81.
97. Zhang J, Li S, Li L, et al. Exosome and exosomal microRNA: trafficking, sorting, and function. Genom Proteom Bioinf 2015;13:17-24.
98. Mulcahy LA, Pink RC, Carter DR. Routes and mechanisms of extracellular vesicle uptake. J Extracell Vesicles 2014;3:24641.
99. Muralidharan-Chari V, Clancy J, Plou C, et al. ARF6-regulated shedding of tumor cell-derived plasma membrane microvesicles. Curr Biol 2009;19:1875-85.
100. Johnson SM, Dempsey C, Parker C, Mironov A, Bradley H, Saha V. Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia cells produce large extracellular vesicles containing organelles and an active cytoskeleton. J Extracell Vesicles 2017;6:1294339.
101. Ailawadi S, Wang X, Gu H, Fan GC. Pathologic function and therapeutic potential of exosomes in cardiovascular disease. Biochim Biophys Acta 2015;1852:1-11.
102. Schurgers LJ, Spronk HM, Skepper JN, et al. Post-translational modifications regulate matrix Gla protein function: importance for inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell calcification. J Thromb Haemost 2007;5:2503-11.
103. Chen NX, Chen X, O'Neill KD, Atkinson SJ, Moe SM. RhoA/Rho kinase (ROCK) alters fetuin-A uptake and regulates calcification in bovine vascular smooth muscle cells (BVSMC). Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2010;299:F674-80.
104. Reynolds JL, Skepper JN, McNair R, et al. Multifunctional roles for serum protein fetuin-a in inhibition of human vascular smooth muscle cell calcification. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:2920-30.
105. Buffolo F, Monticone S, Camussi G, Aikawa E. Role of extracellular vesicles in the pathogenesis of vascular damage. Hypertension 2022;79:863-73.
106. Rogers MA, Buffolo F, Schlotter F, et al. Annexin A1-dependent tethering promotes extracellular vesicle aggregation revealed with single-extracellular vesicle analysis. Sci Adv 2020;6:eabb1244.
107. Alique M, Ruíz-Torres MP, Bodega G, et al. Microvesicles from the plasma of elderly subjects and from senescent endothelial cells promote vascular calcification. Aging 2017;9:778-89.
108. Furmanik M, van Gorp R, Whitehead M, et al. Endoplasmic reticulum stress mediates vascular smooth muscle cell calcification via increased release of Grp78 (Glucose-Regulated Protein, 78 kDa)-loaded extracellular vesicles. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2021;41:898-914.
109. Laulagnier K, Javalet C, Hemming FJ, et al. Amyloid precursor protein products concentrate in a subset of exosomes specifically endocytosed by neurons. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018;75:757-73.
110. Fevrier B, Vilette D, Archer F, et al. Cells release prions in association with exosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:9683-8.
111. Stuendl A, Kunadt M, Kruse N, et al. Induction of α-synuclein aggregate formation by CSF exosomes from patients with Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. Brain 2016;139:481-94.
112. Saman S, Kim W, Raya M, et al. Exosome-associated tau is secreted in tauopathy models and is selectively phosphorylated in cerebrospinal fluid in early Alzheimer disease. J Biol Chem 2012;287:3842-9.
113. Silverman JM, Christy D, Shyu CC, et al. CNS-derived extracellular vesicles from superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1)(G93A) ALS mice originate from astrocytes and neurons and carry misfolded SOD1. J Biol Chem 2019;294:3744-59.
114. Falker C, Hartmann A, Guett I, et al. Exosomal cellular prion protein drives fibrillization of amyloid beta and counteracts amyloid beta-mediated neurotoxicity. J Neurochem 2016;137:88-100.
115. Holtzman DM. Role of apoe/Aβ interactions in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease and cerebral amyloid angiopathy. J Mol Neurosci 2001;17:147-55.
116. Yuyama K, Sun H, Mitsutake S, Igarashi Y. Sphingolipid-modulated exosome secretion promotes clearance of amyloid-β by microglia. J Biol Chem 2012;287:10977-89.
117. Patel NJ, Ashraf A, Chung EJ. Extracellular vesicles as regulators of the extracellular matrix. Bioengineering 2023;10:136.
118. Kapustin AN, Davies JD, Reynolds JL, et al. Calcium regulates key components of vascular smooth muscle cell-derived matrix vesicles to enhance mineralization. Circ Res 2011;109:e1-12.
119. Faleeva M, Ahmad S, Lynham S, et al. Sox9 accelerates vascular ageing by regulating extracellular matrix composition and stiffness. Circ Res Forthcoming 2023.
120. Chen NX, O’Neill K, Chen X, Kiattisunthorn K, Gattone VH, Moe SM. Transglutaminase 2 accelerates vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease. Am J Nephrol 2013;37:191-8.
121. Valadi H, Ekström K, Bossios A, Sjöstrand M, Lee JJ, Lötvall JO. Exosome-mediated transfer of mRNAs and microRNAs is a novel mechanism of genetic exchange between cells. Nat Cell Biol 2007;9:654-9.
122. Pan W, Liang J, Tang H, et al. Differentially expressed microRNA profiles in exosomes from vascular smooth muscle cells associated with coronary artery calcification. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2020;118:105645.
123. Koide T, Mandai S, Kitaoka R, et al. Circulating extracellular vesicle-propagated microRNA signature as a vascular calcification factor in chronic kidney disease. Circ Res 2023;132:415-31.
124. Chaturvedi P, Chen NX, O’Neill K, McClintick JN, Moe SM, Janga SC. Differential miRNA expression in cells and matrix vesicles in vascular smooth muscle cells from rats with kidney disease. PLoS One 2015;10:e0131589.
125. Rajendran L, Annaert W. Membrane trafficking pathways in Alzheimer's disease. Traffic 2012;13:759-70.
126. Rajendran L, Bali J, Barr MM, et al. Emerging roles of extracellular vesicles in the nervous system. J Neurosci 2014;34:15482-9.
127. Takahashi RH, Milner TA, Li F, et al. Intraneuronal Alzheimer Aβ42 accumulates in multivesicular bodies and is associated with synaptic pathology. Am J Pathol 2002;161:1869-79.
128. Yuyama K, Yamamoto N, Yanagisawa K. Accelerated release of exosome-associated GM1 ganglioside (GM1) by endocytic pathway abnormality: another putative pathway for GM1-induced amyloid fibril formation. J Neurochem 2008;105:217-24.
129. van Niel G, Bergam P, Di Cicco A, et al. Apolipoprotein E regulates amyloid formation within endosomes of pigment cells. Cell Rep 2015;13:43-51.
130. Guo BB, Bellingham SA, Hill AF. Stimulating the release of exosomes increases the intercellular transfer of prions. J Biol Chem 2016;291:5128-37.
131. Sackmann V, Sinha MS, Sackmann C, et al. Inhibition of nSMase2 reduces the transfer of oligomeric α-synuclein irrespective of hypoxia. Front Mol Neurosci 2019;12:200.
132. Fowler DM, Koulov AV, Balch WE, Kelly JW. Functional amyloid - from bacteria to humans. Trends Biochem Sci 2007;32:217-24.
133. van Niel G, Charrin S, Simoes S, et al. The tetraspanin CD63 regulates ESCRT-independent and -dependent endosomal sorting during melanogenesis. Dev Cell 2011;21:708-21.
134. Miranda AM, Lasiecka ZM, Xu Y, et al. Neuronal lysosomal dysfunction releases exosomes harboring APP C-terminal fragments and unique lipid signatures. Nat Commun 2018;9:291.
135. Dinkins MB, Dasgupta S, Wang G, Zhu G, Bieberich E. Exosome reduction in vivo is associated with lower amyloid plaque load in the 5XFAD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2014;35:1792-800.
136. Halima S, Rajendran L. Membrane anchored and lipid raft targeted β-secretase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease therapy. J Alzheimers Dis 2011;24 Suppl 2:143-52.
137. Maxfield FR, Yamashiro DJ. Endosome acidification and the pathways of receptor-mediated endocytosis. Adv Exp Med Biol 1987;225:189-98.
138. Aguzzi A, Rajendran L. The transcellular spread of cytosolic amyloids, prions, and prionoids. Neuron 2009;64:783-90.
139. Sardar Sinha M, Ansell-Schultz A, Civitelli L, et al. Alzheimer′s disease pathology propagation by exosomes containing toxic amyloid-beta oligomers. Acta Neuropathol 2018;136:41-56.
140. Yin Y, Chen H, Wang Y, Zhang L, Wang X. Roles of extracellular vesicles in the aging microenvironment and age-related diseases. J Extracell Vesicles 2021;10:e12154.
141. Iske J, Seyda M, Heinbokel T, et al. Senolytics prevent mt-DNA-induced inflammation and promote the survival of aged organs following transplantation. Nat Commun 2020;11:4289.
142. Grigorian Shamagian L, Rogers RG, Luther K, et al. Rejuvenating effects of young extracellular vesicles in aged rats and in cellular models of human senescence. Sci Rep 2023;13:12240.
143. Liu Y, Liu Z, Xie Y, Zhao C, Xu J. Serum extracellular vesicles retard H9C2 cell senescence by suppressing miR-34a expression. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 2019;12:45-50.
144. Lee BR, Kim JH, Choi ES, Cho JH, Kim E. Effect of young exosomes injected in aged mice. Int J Nanomedicine 2018;13:5335-45.
145. Frantz C, Stewart KM, Weaver VM. The extracellular matrix at a glance. J Cell Sci 2010;123:4195-200.
146. Decaris ML, Gatmaitan M, FlorCruz S, et al. Proteomic analysis of altered extracellular matrix turnover in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Mol Cell Proteomics 2014;13:1741-52.
147. Engler AJ, Sen S, Sweeney HL, Discher DE. Matrix elasticity directs stem cell lineage specification. Cell 2006;126:677-89.
148. Szul T, Bratcher PE, Fraser KB, et al. Toll-like receptor 4 engagement mediates prolyl endopeptidase release from airway epithelia via exosomes. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2016;54:359-69.
149. Genschmer KR, Russell DW, Lal C, et al. Activated PMN exosomes: pathogenic entities causing matrix destruction and disease in the lung. Cell 2019;176:113-26.e15.
150. Brodeur MR, Bouvet C, Bouchard S, et al. Reduction of advanced-glycation end products levels and inhibition of RAGE signaling decreases rat vascular calcification induced by diabetes. PLoS One 2014;9:e85922.
151. Zhu Y, Ma WQ, Han XQ, Wang Y, Wang X, Liu NF. Advanced glycation end products accelerate calcification in VSMCs through HIF-1α/PDK4 activation and suppress glucose metabolism. Sci Rep 2018;8:13730.
152. Ren X, Shao H, Wei Q, Sun Z, Liu N. Advanced glycation end-products enhance calcification in vascular smooth muscle cells. J Int Med Res 2009;37:847-54.
153. Tanikawa T, Okada Y, Tanikawa R, Tanaka Y. Advanced glycation end products induce calcification of vascular smooth muscle cells through RAGE/p38 MAPK. J Vasc Res 2009;46:572-80.
154. Vitek MP, Bhattacharya K, Glendening JM, et al. Advanced glycation end products contribute to amyloidosis in Alzheimer disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;91:4766-70.
155. Sirangelo I, Iannuzzi C. Understanding the role of protein glycation in the amyloid aggregation process. Int J Mol Sci 2021;22:6609.
156. Kim SH, Turnbull J, Guimond S. Extracellular matrix and cell signalling: the dynamic cooperation of integrin, proteoglycan and growth factor receptor. J Endocrinol 2011;209:139-51.
157. Thomsen MS, Routhe LJ, Moos T. The vascular basement membrane in the healthy and pathological brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2017;37:3300-17.
158. Lepelletier FX, Mann DM, Robinson AC, Pinteaux E, Boutin H. Early changes in extracellular matrix in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2017;43:167-82.
159. Huang LH, Sun XY, Ouyang JM. Shape-dependent toxicity and mineralization of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles in A7R5 aortic smooth muscle cells. Sci Rep 2019;9:18979.
160. Nadra I, Mason JC, Philippidis P, et al. Proinflammatory activation of macrophages by basic calcium phosphate crystals via protein kinase C and MAP kinase pathways: a vicious cycle of inflammation and arterial calcification? Circ Res 2005;96:1248-56.
161. Nahar-Gohad P, Gohad N, Tsai CC, Bordia R, Vyavahare N. Rat aortic smooth muscle cells cultured on hydroxyapatite differentiate into osteoblast-like cells via BMP-2-SMAD-5 pathway. Calcif Tissue Int 2015;96:359-69.
162. Pryor NE, Moss MA, Hestekin CN. Unraveling the early events of amyloid-β protein (Aβ) aggregation: techniques for the determination of Aβ aggregate size. Int J Mol Sci 2012;13:3038-72.
163. Ahmed M, Davis J, Aucoin D, et al. Structural conversion of neurotoxic amyloid-beta(1-42) oligomers to fibrils. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2010;17:561-7.
164. Kayed R, Lasagna-Reeves CA. Molecular mechanisms of amyloid oligomers toxicity. J Alzheimers Dis 2013;33 Suppl 1:S67-78.
165. Schubert D, Behl C, Lesley R, et al. Amyloid peptides are toxic via a common oxidative mechanism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:1989-93.
166. Kawahara M, Kuroda Y, Arispe N, Rojas E. Alzheimer's β-amyloid, human islet amylin, and prion protein fragment evoke intracellular free calcium elevations by a common mechanism in a hypothalamic GnRH neuronal cell line. J Biol Chem 2000;275:14077-83.
167. Hu X, Crick SL, Bu G, Frieden C, Pappu RV, Lee JM. Amyloid seeds formed by cellular uptake, concentration, and aggregation of the amyloid-beta peptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009;106:20324-9.
168. Migrino RQ, Davies HA, Truran S, et al. Amyloidogenic medin induces endothelial dysfunction and vascular inflammation through the receptor for advanced glycation endproducts. Cardiovasc Res 2017;113:1389-402.
169. Peng S, Larsson A, Wassberg E, et al. Role of aggregated medin in the pathogenesis of thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection. Lab Invest 2007;87:1195-205.
170. Madine J, Middleton DA. Comparison of aggregation enhancement and inhibition as strategies for reducing the cytotoxicity of the aortic amyloid polypeptide medin. Eur Biophys J 2010;39:1281-8.
171. Jacob MP. Extracellular matrix remodeling and matrix metalloproteinases in the vascular wall during aging and in pathological conditions. Biomed Pharmacother 2003;57:195-202.
172. Chung AW, Yang HH, Kim JM, et al. Upregulation of matrix metalloproteinase-2 in the arterial vasculature contributes to stiffening and vasomotor dysfunction in patients with chronic kidney disease. Circulation 2009;120:792-801.
173. Rodriguez-Romero R, Vargas-Serrano B, Cortina-Moreno B, Fernandez-Gallardo JM, Cervera-Rodilla JL. Calcified amyloidoma of the larynx. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1996;17:1491-3. Avaliable from: https://www.ajnr.org/content/17/8/1491 [Last accessed on 22 Jan 2024].
174. Requena C, Diago A, Traves V, Llombart B, Nagore E, Sanmartin O. Cutaneous ossifying amyloidoma. Am J Dermatopathol 2022;44:760-3.
176. Sud K, Narula N, Aikawa E, et al. The contribution of amyloid deposition in the aortic valve to calcification and aortic stenosis. Nat Rev Cardiol 2023;20:418-28.
177. Audet A, Côté N, Couture C, et al. Amyloid substance within stenotic aortic valves promotes mineralization. Histopathology 2012;61:610-9.
178. Ladefoged C, Rohr N. Amyloid deposits in aortic and mitral valves. A clinicopathological investigation of material from 100 consecutive heart valve operations. Virchows Arch A Pathol Anat Histopathol 1984;404:301-12.
179. Cui L, Rashdan NA, Zhu D, et al. End stage renal disease-induced hypercalcemia may promote aortic valve calcification via Annexin VI enrichment of valve interstitial cell derived-matrix vesicles. J Cell Physiol 2017;232:2985-95.
180. Ratinov G. Extradural intracranial portion of carotid artery; a clinicopathologic study. Arch Neurol 1964;10:66-73.
181. Chen XY, Lam WW, Ng HK, Fan YH, Wong KS. The frequency and determinants of calcification in intracranial arteries in Chinese patients who underwent computed tomography examinations. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006;21:91-7.
182. Mak HK, Wong CW, Yau KK, et al. Computed tomography evaluation of intracranial atherosclerosis in Chinese patients with transient ischemic attack or minor ischemic stroke - its distribution and association with vascular risk factors. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 2009;18:158-63.
183. Wu XH, Chen XY, Wang LJ, Wong KS. Intracranial artery calcification and its clinical significance. J Clin Neurol 2016;12:253-61.
184. Bugnicourt JM, Leclercq C, Chillon JM, et al. Presence of intracranial artery calcification is associated with mortality and vascular events in patients with ischemic stroke after hospital discharge: a cohort study. Stroke 2011;42:3447-53.
185. Sohn YH, Cheon HY, Jeon P, Kang SY. Clinical implication of cerebral artery calcification on brain CT. Cerebrovasc Dis 2004;18:332-7.
186. Chue CD, Townend JN, Steeds RP, Ferro CJ. Arterial stiffness in chronic kidney disease: causes and consequences. Heart 2010;96:817-23.
187. Bugnicourt JM, Chillon JM, Massy ZA, et al. High prevalence of intracranial artery calcification in stroke patients with CKD: a retrospective study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;4:284-90.
188. Power A, Chan K, Haydar A, et al. Intracranial arterial calcification is highly prevalent in hemodialysis patients but does not associate with acute ischemic stroke. Hemodial Int 2011;15:256-63.
189. Moursel L, van der Graaf LM, Bulk M, van Roon-Mom WMC, van der Weerd L. Osteopontin and phospho-SMAD2/3 are associated with calcification of vessels in D-CAA, an hereditary cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Brain Pathol 2019;29:793-802.
190. Jian B, Narula N, Li QY, Mohler ER 3rd, Levy RJ. Progression of aortic valve stenosis: TGF-β1 is present in calcified aortic valve cusps and promotes aortic valve interstitial cell calcification via apoptosis. Ann Thorac Surg 2003;75:457-65.
191. Watson KE, Boström K, Ravindranath R, Lam T, Norton B, Demer LL. TGF-β 1 and 25-hydroxycholesterol stimulate osteoblast-like vascular cells to calcify. J Clin Invest 1994;93:2106-13.
192. Schober R, Hilbrich I, Jäger C, Holzer M. Senile plaque calcification of the lamina circumvoluta medullaris in Alzheimer's disease. Neuropathology 2021;41:366-70.
193. Hecht E, Freise C, Websky KV, et al. The matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 initiate uraemic vascular calcifications. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2016;31:789-97.
194. Zhang J, Wang J, Ma C, Lu J. Hydroxyapatite formation coexists with amyloid-like self-assembly of human amelogenin. Int J Mol Sci 2020;21:2946.
195. Obici L, Merlini G. An overview of drugs currently under investigation for the treatment of transthyretin-related hereditary amyloidosis. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2014;23:1239-51.
196. Cox SJ, Lam B, Prasad A, et al. High-throughput screening at the membrane interface reveals inhibitors of amyloid-β. Biochemistry 2020;59:2249-58.
197. Tong XK, Hamel E. Simvastatin restored vascular reactivity, endothelial function and reduced string vessel pathology in a mouse model of cerebrovascular disease. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2015;35:512-20.
198. Roos CM, Zhang B, Palmer AK, et al. Chronic senolytic treatment alleviates established vasomotor dysfunction in aged or atherosclerotic mice. Aging Cell 2016;15:973-7.
199. Jing L, Li L, Ren X, et al. Role of sortilin and matrix vesicles in Nε-carboxymethyl-lysine-induced diabetic atherosclerotic calcification. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2020;13:4141-51.
