REFERENCES
1. Safiri S, Kolahi AA, Smith E, et al. Global, regional and national burden of osteoarthritis 1990-2017: a systematic analysis of the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Ann Rheum Dis 2020;79:819-28.
2. Reed SR, Jackson BF, Mc Ilwraith CW, et al. Descriptive epidemiology of joint injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses in training. Equine Vet J 2012;44:13-9.
3. Woolf AD. Global burden of osteoarthritis and musculoskeletal diseases. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2015:16.
4. Kloppenburg M, Berenbaum F. Osteoarthritis year in review 2019: epidemiology and therapy. Osteoarthr Cartil 2020;28:242-8.
5. 2017 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 354 diseases and injuries for 195 countries and territories, 1990-2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet 2018;392:1789-858.
6. Mcilwraith CW. Traumatic arthritis and posttraumatic osteoarthritis in the horse. joint disease in the horse. Elsevier; 2016. p. 33-48.
7. Wang X, Hunter DJ, Jin X, Ding C. The importance of synovial inflammation in osteoarthritis: current evidence from imaging assessments and clinical trials. Osteoarthr Cartil 2018;26:165-74.
8. Goldberg A, Mitchell K, Soans J, Kim L, Zaidi R. The use of mesenchymal stem cells for cartilage repair and regeneration: a systematic review. J Orthop Surg Res 2017;12:39.
9. King NM, Perrin J. Ethical issues in stem cell research and therapy. Stem Cell Res Ther 2014;5:85.
10. Loo SJQ, Wong NK. Advantages and challenges of stem cell therapy for osteoarthritis (Review). Biomed Rep 2021;15:67.
11. Wang G, Xing D, Liu W, et al. Preclinical studies and clinical trials on mesenchymal stem cell therapy for knee osteoarthritis: a systematic review on models and cell doses. Int J Rheum Dis 2022;25:532-62.
12. Doyle LM, Wang MZ. Overview of extracellular vesicles, their origin, composition, purpose, and methods for exosome isolation and analysis. Cells 2019;8:727.
13. Kalra H, Drummen GP, Mathivanan S. Focus on extracellular vesicles: introducing the next small big thing. Int J Mol Sci 2016;17:170.
14. Lai RC, Arslan F, Lee MM, et al. Exosome secreted by MSC reduces myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. Stem Cell Res 2010;4:214-22.
15. Boere J, Malda J, van de Lest CHA, van Weeren PR, Wauben MHM. Extracellular vesicles in joint disease and therapy. Front Immunol 2018;9:2575.
16. Li K, Yan G, Huang H, et al. Anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of the extracellular vesicles derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells on osteoarthritis via M2 macrophages. J Nanobiotechnology 2022;20:38.
17. Zhang S, Chu WC, Lai RC, Lim SK, Hui JH, Toh WS. Exosomes derived from human embryonic mesenchymal stem cells promote osteochondral regeneration. Osteoarthr Cartil 2016;24:2135-40.
18. Tan SSH, Tjio CKE, Wong JRY, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell exosomes for cartilage regeneration: a systematic review of preclinical
19. McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE. The horse as a model of naturally occurring osteoarthritis. Bone Joint Res 2012;1:297-309.
20. Kawcak CE, Frisbie DD, Trotter GW, et al. Effects of intravenous administration of sodium hyaluronate on carpal joints in exercising horses after arthroscopic surgery and osteochondral fragmentation. Am J Vet Res 1997;58:1132-40.
21. Kawcak CE, Norrdin RW, Frisbie DD, Trotter GW, Mcilwraith CW. Effects of osteochondral fragmentation and intra-articular triamcinolone acetonide treatment on subchondral bone in the equine carpus. Equine Vet J 1998;30:66-71.
22. Seabaugh KA, Barrett MF, Rao S, McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD. Examining the effects of the oral supplement biota orientalis in the osteochondral fragment-exercise model of osteoarthritis in the horse. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:858391.
23. Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, Baxter GM, et al. Effects of triamcinolone acetonide on an
24. Frisbie DD, Cross MW, Mcilwraith CW. A comparative study of articular cartilage thickness in the stifle of animal species used in human pre-clinical studies compared to articular cartilage thickness in the human knee. Vet Comp Orthop Traumatol 2006;19:142-6.
25. Bertoni L, Jacquet-Guibon S, Branly T, et al. An experimentally induced osteoarthritis model in horses performed on both metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints: Technical, clinical, imaging, biochemical, macroscopic and microscopic characterization. PLoS One 2020;15:e0235251.
26. Frisbie D, Ghivizzani C, Robbins D, Evans H, McIlwraith W. Treatment of experimental equine osteoarthritis by
27. Cook JL, Hung CT, Kuroki K, et al. Animal models of cartilage repair. Bone Joint Res 2014;3:89-94.
28. Cope PJ, Ourradi K, Li Y, Sharif M. Models of osteoarthritis: the good, the bad and the promising. Osteoarthr Cartil 2019;27:230-9.
29. Wang Y, Chen Y, Wei Y. Osteoarthritis animal models for biomaterial-assisted osteochondral regeneration. Biomater Transl 2022;3:264-79.
30. Shepherd DE, Seedhom BB. Thickness of human articular cartilage in joints of the lower limb. Ann Rheum Dis 1999;58:27-34.
31. Ahern BJ, Parvizi J, Boston R, Schaer TP. Preclinical animal models in single site cartilage defect testing: a systematic review. Osteoarthr Cartil 2009;17:705-13.
32. Broeckx SY, Pille F, Buntinx S, et al. Evaluation of an osteochondral fragment-groove procedure for induction of metacarpophalangeal joint osteoarthritis in horses. Am J Vet Res 2019;80:246-58.
33. Frisbie DD, Al-Sobayil F, Billinghurst RC, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW. Changes in synovial fluid and serum biomarkers with exercise and early osteoarthritis in horses. Osteoarthr Cartil 2008;16:1196-204.
34. Kawcak CE, Frisbie DD, McIlwraith CW, Werpy NM, Park RD. Evaluation of avocado and soybean unsaponifiable extracts for treatment of horses with experimentally induced osteoarthritis. Am J Vet Res 2007;68:598-604.
35. Simmons E, Bertone A, Weisbrode S. Instability-induced osteoarthritis in the metacarpophalangeal joint of horses. Am J Vet Res 1999;60:7-13.
36. Bolam CJ, Hurtig MB, Cruz A, McEwen BJ. Characterization of experimentally induced post-traumatic osteoarthritis in the medial femorotibial joint of horses. Am J Vet Res 2006;67:433-47.
37. Boyce M, Trumble T, Carlson C, Groschen D, Merritt K, Brown M. Non-terminal animal model of post-traumatic osteoarthritis induced by acute joint injury. Osteoarthr Cartil 2013;21:746-55.
38. Delco ML, Goodale M, Talts JF, et al. Integrin α10β1-Selected Mesenchymal Stem Cells Mitigate the Progression of Osteoarthritis in an Equine Talar Impact Model. Am J Sports Med 2020;48:612-23.
39. Kamm J, Nixon A, Witte T. Cytokine and catabolic enzyme expression in synovium, synovial fluid and articular cartilage of naturally osteoarthritic equine carpi. Equine Vet J 2010;42:693-9.
40. McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, Fuller CJ, Hurtig M, Cruz A. The OARSI histopathology initiative - recommendations for histological assessments of osteoarthritis in the horse. Osteoarthr Cartil 2010;18 Suppl 3:S93-105.
41. Foland JW, McIlwraith CW, Trotter GW, Powers BE, Lamar CH. Effect of betamethasone and exercise on equine carpal joints with osteochondral fragments. Vet Surg 1994;23:369-76.
42. Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Trotter GW, Powers BE. Effects of triamcinolone in an equine
43. Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, Baxter GM, et al. Effects of 6alpha-methylprednisolone acetate on an equine osteochondral fragment exercise model. Am J Vet Res 1998;59:1619-28.
44. Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, Werpy NM, Park RD, Mcilwraith CW. Clinical, biochemical, and histologic effects of intra-articular administration of autologous conditioned serum in horses with experimentally induced osteoarthritis. Am J Vet Res 2007;68:290-6.
45. Kawcak CE, Frisbie DD, Werpy NM, Park RD, McIlwraith CW. Effects of exercise vs experimental osteoarthritis on imaging outcomes. Osteoarthr Cartil 2008;16:1519-25.
46. Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, Mcilwraith CW, Werpy NM. Evaluation of polysulfated glycosaminoglycan or sodium hyaluronan administered with experimentally induced osteoarthritis. Am J Vet Res 2009;70:203-9.
47. Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW. Evaluation of the effect of extracorporeal shock wave treatment on experimentally induced osteoarthritis in middle carpal joints of horses. Am J Vet Res 2009;70:449-54.
48. Frisbie DD, Kisiday JD, Kawcak CE, Werpy NM, McIlwraith CW. Evaluation of adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction or bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells for treatment of osteoarthritis. J Orthop Res 2009;27:1675-80.
49. Kawcak CE, Frisbie DD, McIlwraith CW. Effects of extracorporeal shock wave therapy and polysulfated glycosaminoglycan treatment on subchondral bone, serum biomarkers, and synovial fluid biomarkers in horses with induced osteoarthritis. Am J Vet Res 2011;72:772-9.
50. McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE. Evaluation of intramuscularly administered sodium pentosan polysulfate for treatment of experimentally induced osteoarthritis in horses. Am J Vet Res 2012;73:628-33.
51. Donnell JR, Frisbie DD, King MR, Goodrich LR, Haussler KK. Comparison of subjective lameness evaluation, force platforms and an inertial-sensor system to identify mild lameness in an equine osteoarthritis model. Vet J 2015;206:136-42.
52. Frisbie DD, McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE, Werpy NM. Efficacy of intravenous administration of hyaluronan, sodium chondroitin sulfate, and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine for prevention or treatment of osteoarthritis in horses. Am J Vet Res 2016;77:1064-70.
53. King MR, Haussler KK, Kawcak CE, et al. Biomechanical and histologic evaluation of the effects of underwater treadmill exercise on horses with experimentally induced osteoarthritis of the middle carpal joint. Am J Vet Res 2017;78:558-69.
54. Frisbie D, King M, Nelson B, Gearing D.
56. Brandt KD, Dieppe P, Radin EL. Etiopathogenesis of osteoarthritis. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 2008;34:531-59.
57. Lane NE, Brandt K, Hawker G, et al. OARSI-FDA initiative: defining the disease state of osteoarthritis. Osteoarthr Cartil 2011;19:478-82.
58. Loeser RF, Goldring SR, Scanzello CR, Goldring MB. Osteoarthritis: a disease of the joint as an organ. Arthritis Rheum 2012;64:1697-707.
59. Wenham CY, Conaghan PG. The role of synovitis in osteoarthritis. Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis 2010;2:349-59.
60. Estrada McDermott J, Pezzanite L, Goodrich L, et al. Role of innate immunity in initiation and progression of osteoarthritis, with emphasis on horses. Animals (Basel) 2021;11:3247.
61. Chen Y, Wei J, Huang Y, et al. Macrophages in osteoarthritis: pathophysiology and therapeutics. Am J Transl Res 2020;12:261-8.
62. Sellam J, Berenbaum F. The role of synovitis in pathophysiology and clinical symptoms of osteoarthritis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2010;6:625-35.
63. Sandell LJ, Aigner T. Articular cartilage and changes in arthritis. An introduction: cell biology of osteoarthritis. Arthritis Res 2001;3:107-13.
65. Deyle GD, Allison SC, Matekel RL, et al. Physical therapy treatment effectiveness for osteoarthritis of the knee: a randomized comparison of supervised clinical exercise and manual therapy procedures versus a home exercise program. Physical Therapy 2005;85:1301-17.
66. Knutsen G, Engebretsen L, Ludvigsen TC, et al. Autologous chondrocyte implantation compared with microfracture in the knee. A randomized trial. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2004;86:455-64.
67. Zhu C, Wu W, Qu X. Mesenchymal stem cells in osteoarthritis therapy: a review. Am J Transl Res 2021;13:448-61.
68. Zanotto GM, Frisbie DD. Current joint therapy usage in equine practice: changes in the last 10 years. Equine Vet J 2021;Epub ahead of print.
69. Migliore A, Procopio S. Effectiveness and utility of hyaluronic acid in osteoarthritis. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab 2015;12:31-3.
70. Goodrich LR, Nixon AJ. Medical treatment of osteoarthritis in the horse - a review. Vet J 2006;171:51-69.
71. van Galen G, Saegerman C, Hyldahl Laursen S, et al. Colonic health in hospitalized horses treated with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs - a preliminary study. J Equine Vet Sci 2021;101:103451.
72. Lazzaroni M, Bianchi Porro G. Gastrointestinal side-effects of traditional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and new formulations. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004;20 Suppl 2:48-58.
73. Wernecke C, Braun HJ, Dragoo JL. The effect of intra-articular corticosteroids on articular cartilage: a systematic review. Orthop J Sports Med 2015;3:2325967115581163.
74. Chen J, Li J, Li R, et al. Efficacy and safety of tanezumab on osteoarthritis knee and hip pains: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Pain Med 2017;18:374-85.
75. Auw Yang KG, Raijmakers NJ, van Arkel ER, et al. Autologous interleukin-1 receptor antagonist improves function and symptoms in osteoarthritis when compared to placebo in a prospective randomized controlled trial. Osteoarthr Cartil 2008;16:498-505.
76. Nixon AJ, Grol MW, Lang HM, et al. Disease-modifying osteoarthritis treatment with interleukin-1 receptor antagonist gene therapy in small and large animal models. Arthritis Rheumatol 2018;70:1757-68.
77. Horwitz EM, Le Blanc K, Dominici M, et al. International Society for Cellular Therapy. Clarification of the nomenclature for MSC: The International Society for Cellular Therapy position statement. Cytotherapy 2005;7:393-5.
78. Dominici M, Le Blanc K, Mueller I, et al. Minimal criteria for defining multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells. The International Society for Cellular Therapy position statement. Cytotherapy 2006;8:315-7.
79. Meirelles Lda S, Fontes AM, Covas DT, Caplan AI. Mechanisms involved in the therapeutic properties of mesenchymal stem cells. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2009;20:419-27.
80. Toh WS, Foldager CB, Pei M, Hui JH. Advances in mesenchymal stem cell-based strategies for cartilage repair and regeneration. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2014;10:686-96.
81. Abd-elsayed A. Stem cells for the creatment of knee osteoarthritis: a comprehensive review. Pain Phys 2018;1:229-42.
82. Maheshwer B, Polce EM, Paul K, et al. Regenerative potential of mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of knee osteoarthritis and chondral defects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthroscopy 2021;37:362-78.
83. Ferris DJ, Frisbie DD, Kisiday JD, et al. Clinical outcome after intra-articular administration of bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells in 33 horses with stifle injury. Vet Surg 2014;43:255-65.
84. Broeckx SY, Seys B, Suls M, et al. Equine allogeneic chondrogenic induced mesenchymal stem cells are an effective treatment for degenerative joint disease in horses. Stem Cells Dev 2019;28:410-22.
85. Fortier LA, Potter HG, Rickey EJ, et al. Concentrated bone marrow aspirate improves full-thickness cartilage repair compared with microfracture in the equine model. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2010;92:1927-37.
86. Baraniak PR, McDevitt TC. Stem cell paracrine actions and tissue regeneration. Regen Med 2010;5:121-43.
87. van Buul GM, Villafuertes E, Bos PK, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells secrete factors that inhibit inflammatory processes in short-term osteoarthritic synovium and cartilage explant culture. Osteoarthr Cartil 2012;20:1186-96.
88. Chen YC, Chang YW, Tan KP, Shen YS, Wang YH, Chang CH. Can mesenchymal stem cells and their conditioned medium assist inflammatory chondrocytes recovery? PLoS One 2018;13:e0205563.
89. Timmers L, Lim SK, Arslan F, et al. Reduction of myocardial infarct size by human mesenchymal stem cell conditioned medium. Stem Cell Res 2007;1:129-37.
90. Kim GB, Shon OJ, Seo MS, Choi Y, Park WT, Lee GW. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes and their therapeutic potential for osteoarthritis. Biology (Basel) 2021;10:285.
91. Mustonen AM, Nieminen P. Extracellular vesicles and their potential significance in the pathogenesis and treatment of osteoarthritis. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021;14:315.
92. Barkholt L, Flory E, Jekerle V, et al. Risk of tumorigenicity in mesenchymal stromal cell-based therapies-bridging scientific observations and regulatory viewpoints. Cytotherapy 2013;15:753-9.
93. Zhou T, Yuan Z, Weng J, et al. Challenges and advances in clinical applications of mesenchymal stromal cells. J Hematol Oncol 2021;14:24.
94. Pelttari K, Winter A, Steck E, et al. Premature induction of hypertrophy during
95. Nicolas R, Goodwin G. Isolation and analysis. The chromosomal proteins. Elsevier; 1982. p. 41-68.
96. Gasser O, Hess C, Miot S, Deon C, Sanchez JC, Schifferli JA. Characterisation and properties of ectosomes released by human polymorphonuclear neutrophils. Exp Cell Res 2003;285:243-57.
97. Taylor RC, Cullen SP, Martin SJ. Apoptosis: controlled demolition at the cellular level. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2008;9:231-41.
98. Théry C, Witwer KW, Aikawa E, et al. Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles 2018 (MISEV2018): a position statement of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles and update of the MISEV2014 guidelines. J Extracell Vesicles 2018;7:1535750.
99. Zeng ZL, Xie H. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles: a possible therapeutic strategy for orthopaedic diseases: a narrative review. Biomater Transl 2022;3:175-87.
100. Zhu Y, Wang Y, Zhao B, et al. Comparison of exosomes secreted by induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal stem cells and synovial membrane-derived mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of osteoarthritis. Stem Cell Res Ther 2017;8:64.
101. Gorgun C, Palamà MEF, Reverberi D, et al. Role of extracellular vesicles from adipose tissue- and bone marrow-mesenchymal stromal cells in endothelial proliferation and chondrogenesis. Stem Cells Transl Med 2021;10:1680-95.
102. Capomaccio S, Cappelli K, Bazzucchi C, et al. Equine adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells release extracellular vesicles enclosing different subsets of small RNAs. Stem Cells Int 2019;2019:4957806.
103. Arévalo-Turrubiarte M, Baratta M, Ponti G, Chiaradia E, Martignani E. Extracellular vesicles from equine mesenchymal stem cells decrease inflammation markers in chondrocytes
104. Tofiño-Vian M, Guillén MI, Pérez Del Caz MD, Silvestre A, Alcaraz MJ. Microvesicles from human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells as a new protective strategy in osteoarthritic chondrocytes. Cell Physiol Biochem 2018;47:11-25.
105. Cosenza S, Ruiz M, Toupet K, Jorgensen C, Noël D. Mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes and microparticles protect cartilage and bone from degradation in osteoarthritis. Sci Rep 2017;7:16214.
106. Cosenza S, Toupet K, Maumus M, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomes are more immunosuppressive than microparticles in inflammatory arthritis. Theranostics 2018;8:1399-410.
107. Capra E, Lange-Consiglio A. The biological function of extracellular vesicles during fertilization, early embryo-maternal crosstalk and their involvement in reproduction: review and overview. Biomolecules 2020;10:1510.
108. Lange-Consiglio A, Lazzari B, Perrini C, et al. MicroRNAs of equine amniotic mesenchymal cell-derived microvesicles and their involvement in anti-inflammatory processes. Cell Transplant 2018;27:45-54.
109. Lange-Consiglio A, Tassan S, Corradetti B, et al. Investigating the efficacy of amnion-derived compared with bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells in equine tendon and ligament injuries. Cytotherapy 2013;15:1011-20.
110. Liu H, Li M, Zhang T, et al. Engineered bacterial extracellular vesicles for osteoporosis therapy. Chem Eng J 2022;450:138309.
111. Liu H, Zhang H, Han Y, Hu Y, Geng Z, Su J. Bacterial extracellular vesicles-based therapeutic strategies for bone and soft tissue tumors therapy. Theranostics 2022;12:6576-94.
112. Yin H, Li M, Tian G, et al. The role of extracellular vesicles in osteoarthritis treatment via microenvironment regulation. SSRN J 2022:preprint.
113. Liang Y, Xu X, Li X, et al. Chondrocyte-targeted microRNA delivery by engineered exosomes toward a cell-free osteoarthritis therapy. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 2020;12:36938-47.
114. Gurung S, Perocheau D, Touramanidou L, Baruteau J. The exosome journey: from biogenesis to uptake and intracellular signalling. Cell Commun Signal 2021;19:47.
115. Mulcahy LA, Pink RC, Carter DR. Routes and mechanisms of extracellular vesicle uptake. J Extracell Vesicles 2014;3:24641.
116. Jeyaram A, Jay SM. Preservation and storage stability of extracellular vesicles for therapeutic applications. AAPS J 2017;20:1.
117. Watson DC, Yung BC, Bergamaschi C, et al. Scalable, cGMP-compatible purification of extracellular vesicles carrying bioactive human heterodimeric IL-15/lactadherin complexes. J Extracell Vesicles 2018;7:1442088.
118. Paolini L, Monguió-tortajada M, Costa M, et al. Large-scale production of extracellular vesicles: report on the “massivEVs” ISEV workshop. J of Extracellular Bio 2022:1.
119. Withrow J, Murphy C, Liu Y, Hunter M, Fulzele S, Hamrick MW. Extracellular vesicles in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2016;18:286.
120. Murphy C, Withrow J, Hunter M, et al. Emerging role of extracellular vesicles in musculoskeletal diseases. Mol Aspects Med 2018;60:123-8.
121. Malda J, Boere J, van de Lest CHA, van Weeren PR, Wauben MHM. Extracellular vesicles - new tool for joint repair and regeneration. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2016;12:243-9.
122. Li JJ, Hosseini-Beheshti E, Grau GE, Zreiqat H, Little CB. Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles for Treating Joint Injury and Osteoarthritis. Nanomaterials (Basel) 2019;9:261.
123. Ni Z, Kuang L, Chen H, et al. The exosome-like vesicles from osteoarthritic chondrocyte enhanced mature IL-1β production of macrophages and aggravated synovitis in osteoarthritis. Cell Death Dis 2019;10:522.
124. Nakasa T, Miyaki S, Kato T, Takada T, Nakamura Y, Ochi M. Exosome derived from osteoarthritis cartilage induces catabolic factor gene expressions in synovium. ORS, Annual Meeting, San Francisco; 2016.
125. Kato T, Miyaki S, Ishitobi H, et al. Exosomes from IL-1β stimulated synovial fibroblasts induce osteoarthritic changes in articular chondrocytes. Arthritis Res Ther 2014;16:R163.
126. He L, He T, Xing J, et al. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes protect cartilage damage and relieve knee osteoarthritis pain in a rat model of osteoarthritis. Stem Cell Res Ther 2020;11:276.
127. Hotham WE, Thompson C, Szu-Ting L, Henson FMD. The anti-inflammatory effects of equine bone marrow stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles on autologous chondrocytes. Vet Rec Open 2021;8:e22.
128. Vonk LA, van Dooremalen SFJ, Liv N, et al. Mesenchymal stromal/stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles promote human cartilage regeneration
129. Hotham WE, Thompson CH, Newell K, Szu Ting L, Henson F. The isolation and characterisation of equine bone marrow stem cell derived extracellular vesicles - evidence of an anti-inflammatory action on chondrocytes. Res Sq ;2020:preprint.
130. Liu Y, Zou R, Wang Z, Wen C, Zhang F, Lin F. Exosomal KLF3-AS1 from hMSCs promoted cartilage repair and chondrocyte proliferation in osteoarthritis. Biochem J 2018;475:3629-38.
131. Zhang S, Chuah SJ, Lai RC, Hui JHP, Lim SK, Toh WS. MSC exosomes mediate cartilage repair by enhancing proliferation, attenuating apoptosis and modulating immune reactivity. Biomaterials 2018;156:16-27.
132. Zhang S, Wong KL, Ren X, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell exosomes promote functional osteochondral repair in a clinically relevant porcine model. Am J Sports Med 2022;50:788-800.
133. Yang H, Cong M, Huang W, et al. The effect of human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes on cartilage repair in rabbits. Stem Cells Int 2022;2022:5760107.
134. Wiklander OP, Nordin JZ, O’Loughlin A, et al. Extracellular vesicle
135. Lee JY, Kim HS. Extracellular vesicles in regenerative medicine: potentials and challenges. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2021;18:479-84.
