fig7

From: Uncertainty-aware physics-guided digital twins for lithium-ion batteries: toward integrated health, safety, and fast-charging management

Figure 7. Safety diagnosis, early warning, and state-of-safety estimation. (A) Lab-on-fiber experimental platform for internal temperature and pressure monitoring; (B) Measurement logic and functions of the experimental setup; (C) Internal temperature/pressure traces, surface temperature, voltage, and mass evolution during thermal runaway; (D) Thermal-runaway event sequence in 18650 cells; (E) Mechanistic decoding of thermal runaway and derivative-based early warning before venting. Figure 7A-E is reprinted from Ref.^[68], under the CC BY 4.0 license; (F) Strain, temperature, and voltage evolution under abuse; (G) Negative-electrode morphology and composition after runaway; (H) State-of-safety quantitative assessment and trajectory. Figure 7F-H is reprinted with permission from Ref.^[16]. Copyright © 2025 Springer Nature; (I) Distribution of heat and mass-output variability under thermal runaway. Figure 7I is reprinted with permission from Ref.^[34]. Copyright © 2024 Springer Nature. FBG: Fiber Bragg Grating; FPI: Fabry-Perot interferometer; TR: thermal runaway; TC: thermocouple; PC: personal computer; SOH: state of health; SOS: state of safety.