REFERENCES
1. Hwang, J. Y.; Myung, S. T.; Sun, Y. K. Sodium-ion batteries: present and future. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2017, 46, 3529-614.
2. Chen, T.; Wang, J.; Tan, B.; et al. High-energy, high-power sodium-ion batteries from a layered organic cathode. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2025, 147, 6181-92.
3. He, Z.; Huang, Y.; Liu, H.; et al. Anode materials for fast charging sodium-ion batteries. Nano. Energy. 2024, 129, 109996.
4. Bai, J.; Li, Z.; Wang, X.; Świerczek, K.; Wu, C.; Zhao, H. Limitations and strategies toward high-performance red phosphorus materials for Li/Na-ion batteries. Energy. Mater. Adv. 2024, 5, 0086.
5. Chu, Y.; Zhang, J.; Zhang, Y.; et al. Reconfiguring hard carbons with emerging sodium-ion batteries: a perspective. Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, e2212186.
6. Xue, Z.; Yang, S.; Zhang, S.; et al. Review on the application of nanocarbon materials for lithium and sodium metal batteries. Energy. Mater. Adv. 2025, 6, 0415.
7. Zhao, Y.; Zhang, R.; Hao, J.; et al. Understanding the carbonization-controlled microstructure regulation in coal-based hard carbon to strengthen sodium storage performance. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 2025, 27, 11752-61.
8. He, X. X.; Li, L.; Wu, X.; Chou, S. L. Sustainable hard carbon for sodium-ion batteries: precursor design and scalable production roadmaps. Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, e2506066.
9. Wang, X.; Zhang, K.; Su, M.; et al. Coal-derived flaky hard carbon with fast Na+ transport kinetic as advanced anode material for sodium-ion batteries. Carbon 2024, 229, 119526.
10. Zhao, G.; Xu, T.; Zhao, Y.; et al. Conversion of aliphatic structure-rich coal maceral into high-capacity hard carbons for sodium-ion batteries. Energy. Storage. Mater. 2024, 67, 103282.
11. Wang, Y.; Li, M.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, N. Hard carbon for sodium storage: mechanism and performance optimization. Nano. Res. 2024, 17, 6038-57.
12. Lu, H.; Sun, S.; Xiao, L.; et al. High-capacity hard carbon pyrolyzed from subbituminous coal as anode for sodium-ion batteries. ACS. Appl. Energy. Mater. 2019, 2, 729-35.
13. Zhang, W.; Song, R.; Meng, H.; et al. Manipulating surface chemistry on the microarchitecture of coal-based hard carbon for improved sodium storage. Adv. Sci. 2025, 12, e13835.
14. Chen, H.; Sun, N.; Zhu, Q.; Soomro, R. A.; Xu, B. Microcrystalline hybridization enhanced coal-based carbon anode for advanced sodium-ion batteries. Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, e2200023.
15. Zhao, X.; Shi, P.; Wang, H.; et al. Unlocking plateau capacity with versatile precursor crosslinking for carbon anodes in Na-ion batteries. Energy. Storage. Mater. 2024, 70, 103543.
16. Chen, H.; Sun, N.; Wang, Y.; Soomro, R. A.; Xu, B. One stone two birds: pitch assisted microcrystalline regulation and defect engineering in coal-based carbon anodes for sodium-ion batteries. Energy. Storage. Mater. 2023, 56, 532-41.
17. Barbosa, R. F. S.; Shyam, S.; Misra, S.; Mitra, S. K.; Rosa, D. S. Chitosan hydrogels crosslinked with glutaraldehyde for potential toxic elements removal: batch and purification device analysis. J. Appl. Polymer. Sci. 2025, 142, e57539.
18. Agrawal, A.; Janakiraman, S.; Biswas, K.; Venimadhav, A.; Srivastava, S.; Ghosh, S. Understanding the improved electrochemical performance of nitrogen-doped hard carbons as an anode for sodium ion battery. Electrochim. Acta. 2019, 317, 164-72.
19. Shafiee, F. N.; Mohd Noor, S. A.; Mohd Abdah, M. A. A.; Jamal, S. H.; Samsuri, A. Recent progress on hard carbon and other anode materials for sodium-ion batteries. Heliyon 2024, 10, e29512.
20. Huang, J.; Liu, L.; Fan, Q.; Li, S.; Cui, H.; Xu, J. Nitrogen-doped hard carbon anode from redwood biomass for sodium-ion batteries with high initial coulombic efficiency and enhanced rate capability. Small 2025, 21, e2505579.
21. Zhang, T.; Zhang, T.; Wang, F.; Ran, F. High-efficiently doping nitrogen in kapok fiber-derived hard carbon used as anode materials for boosting rate performance of sodium-ion batteries. J. Energy. Chem. 2024, 96, 472-82.
22. Wang, K.; Sun, F.; Wang, H.; et al. Altering thermal transformation pathway to create closed pores in coal-derived hard carbon and boosting of Na+ plateau storage for high-performance sodium-ion battery and sodium-ion capacitor. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 32, 2203725.
23. Yang, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Zhou, H.; et al. Partial oxidation strategy toward carbonyl-dominated surfaces for enhanced sodium storage in biomass-derived hard carbon. Carbon. Neutral. 2025, 4, e70057.
24. Sorlier, P.; Denuzière, A.; Viton, C.; Domard, A. Relation between the degree of acetylation and the electrostatic properties of chitin and chitosan. Biomacromolecules 2001, 2, 765-72.
25. Schiffman, J. D.; Schauer, C. L. Cross-linking chitosan nanofibers. Biomacromolecules 2007, 8, 594-601.
26. Khorsandi, Z.; Borjian-boroujeni, M.; Yekani, R.; Varma, R. S. Carbon nanomaterials with chitosan: a winning combination for drug delivery systems. J. Drug. Deliv. Sci. Technol. 2021, 66, 102847.
27. Chen, Q.; Yang, Z.; Zhao, P.; et al. Thermal gradients optimizing the microstructure of hard carbon for practical sodium-ion batteries. Carbon. Neutral. 2026, 5, e70112.
28. Chen, X.; Liu, C.; Fang, Y.; et al. Understanding of the sodium storage mechanism in hard carbon anodes. Carbon. Energy. 2022, 4, 1133-50.
29. Zhao, J.; He, X.; Lai, W.; et al. Catalytic defect-repairing using manganese ions for hard carbon anode with high-capacity and high-initial-coulombic-efficiency in sodium-ion batteries. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2023, 13, 2300444.
30. Guo, Y.; Ji, S.; Liu, F.; et al. A review of the preparation and characterization techniques for closed pores in hard carbon and their functions in sodium-ion batteries. Energy. Mater. 2025, 5, 500030.
31. Li, N.; Yang, Q.; Wei, Y.; et al. Phosphorus-doped hard carbon with controlled active groups and microstructure for high-performance sodium-ion batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A. 2020, 8, 20486-92.
32. Zhang, Y.; Zhang, S. W.; Chu, Y.; et al. Redefining closed pores in carbons by solvation structures for enhanced sodium storage. Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 3634.
33. Li, Y.; Hu, Y.; Qi, X.; et al. Advanced sodium-ion batteries using superior low cost pyrolyzed anthracite anode: towards practical applications. Energy. Storage. Mater. 2016, 5, 191-7.
34. Huang, G.; Kong, Q.; Yao, W.; Wang, Q. High proportion of active nitrogen-doped hard carbon based on mannich reaction as anode material for high-performance sodium-ion batteries. ChemSusChem 2023, 16, e202202070.
35. Guo, Z.; Xu, Z.; Xie, F.; et al. Investigating the superior performance of hard carbon anodes in sodium-ion compared with lithium- and potassium-ion batteries. Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, e2304091.
36. Rao, Y. B.; Sundman, O.; Holmboe, M.; Tavajohi, N.; Ohlin, C. A. Scotch pine cones-derived hard carbon as an anode material for sodium-ion battery applications. ACS. Omega. 2025, 10, 11158-67.
37. Su, M.; Zhang, K.; Ang, E. H.; et al. Structural regulation of coal-derived hard carbon anode for sodium-ion batteries via pre-oxidation. Rare. Metals. 2024, 43, 2585-96.
38. None Nagmani, S.; Puravankara, S. Hierarchically porous closed-pore hard carbon as a plateau-dominated high-performance anode for sodium-ion batteries. Chem. Commun. 2024, 60, 3071-4.
