fig3

Figure 3. Ceramic membrane technology: (A) the schematic of the ceramic membrane asymmetric multilayer architecture, Adapted with permission from Ref.^[32], Copyright 2017, Elsevier; (B) performance comparison of different ceramic materials, Adapted with permission from Ref.^[19], Copyright 2021, Elsevier; (C) fabrication of ceramic membranes using the sol-gel method, Reprinted with permission from Ref.^[33], Copyright 2025, Elsevier; (D) Fabrication of ceramic membranes using 3D printing technology, Reprinted with permission from Ref.^[34], Copyright 2024, Elsevier. 3D: Three-dimensional.