REFERENCES
1. World Economic Forum. A vision for a sustainable battery value chain in 2030. Unlocking the full potential to power sustainable development and climate change mitigation Geneva. 2019. Available from: https://cn.weforum.org/ [Last accessed on 20 Jul 2026].
2. Arshad, F.; Lin, J.; Manurkar, N.; et al. Life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries: a critical review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2022, 180, 106164.
3. Šimaitis, J.; Lupton, R.; Vagg, C.; Butnar, I.; Sacchi, R.; Allen, S. Battery electric vehicles show the lowest carbon footprints among passenger cars across 1.5-3.0 °C energy decarbonisation pathways. Commun. Earth. Environ. 2025, 6, 476.
4. Mandade, P.; Weil, M.; Baumann, M.; Wei, Z. Environmental life cycle assessment of emerging solid-state batteries: a review. Chem. Eng. J. Adv. 2023, 13, 100439.
5. Seshadri, N.; Cross, D.; Fotouhi, A. Experimental evaluation of thermal barrier materials used in battery electric vehicles. Automot. Innov. 2026, 9, 401-20.
6. Lian, Y.; Ling, H.; Song, G.; Wang, H.; He, B.; Ouyang, M. Investigation on high-temperature-uniformity direct cooling performance of battery pack with large-format blade battery. Automot. Innov. 2025, 8, 769-85.
7. Yang, H.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, Z.; et al. Performance comparison of semi-solid-state batteries with liquid electrolyte batteries: a perspective from vehicle operation. Appl. Energy. 2025, 402, 126899.
8. Xu, C.; Zhang, F.; Chen, J.; et al. Safety assessment of LiNi0.9Mn0.05Co0.05O2 and high-voltage LiNi0.6Mn0.2Co0.2O2 cathode lithium-ion batteries with similar energy density. Automot. Innov. 2026, 422.
9. EVTank. White paper on the development of China's solid-state battery industry (2025) Beijing. 2025 Available from: http://www.evtank.cn/ [Last accessed on 20 Jul 2026].
10. China MoIaITotPsRo. Solid-state battery for electric vehicle—Part 1: terms and classification: standardization administration of the people's republic of China. 2026. Available from: https://wap.miit.gov.cn/ [Last accessed on 20 Jul 2026].
11. Zhan, W.; Liu, Z.; Yu, Y.; et al. Life cycle carbon footprint of battery electric bus: coupling effects of mileage, energy mix and recycling processes. Carbon. Footprints. 2025, 4, 19.
12. Chen, Q.; Lai, X.; Zhang, Y.; et al. Environmental impacts and supply risks for LiFePO4 - LiCoxNiyMn1-x-yO2 hybrid battery pack in China. Process. Saf. Environ. Prot. 2025, 198, 107115.
13. Wang, L.; Zhang, Z.; Xu, F.; et al. 3D-printed honeycomb lithium-silicon alloy anodes for stabilized interface in sulfide all-solid-state batteries. eTransportation 2025, 26, 100476.
14. Pei, L.; Han, Y.; Dong, J.; et al. High-performance solid-state sodium-ion batteries for lightweight electric vehicles: a closed-loop feedback-optimized composite electrolyte design. eTransportation 2025, 25, 100439.
15. Wu, Y.; Zhang, Z.; Zhang, Q.; et al. Industrialization challenges for sulfide-based all solid state battery. eTransportation 2024, 22, 100371.
16. Li, G.; Fan, G.; Zhang, X.; et al. Modeling of an all-solid-state battery with a composite positive electrode. eTransportation 2024, 20, 100315.
17. Zhang, N.; Zhao, X.; Liu, G.; et al. Solid electrolyte membranes for all-solid-state rechargeable batteries. eTransportation 2024, 20, 100319.
18. Gries, A.; Zindel, A.; Langer, F.; et al. Evaluation of various solvents for the wet-chemical synthesis of β-Li3PS4 under energy and environmental aspects. ACS. Appl. Energy. Mater. 2024, 7, 5138-48.
19. Xu, J.; Feng, T.; Guo, W.; et al. Comparative LCA of energy and environmental impacts in sulfide-based all-solid-state battery manufacturing: wet vs. dry processes. J. Energy. Storage. 2026, 150, 120406.
20. Barke, A.; Cistjakov, W.; Steckermeier, D.; et al. Green batteries for clean skies: sustainability assessment of lithium-sulfur all-solid-state batteries for electric aircraft. J. Ind. Ecol. 2022, 27, 795-810.
21. Popien, J.; Thies, C.; Barke, A.; Spengler, T. S. Comparative sustainability assessment of lithium-ion, lithium-sulfur, and all-solid-state traction batteries. Int. J. Life. Cycle. Assess. 2023, 28, 462-77.
22. Wang, Z.; Tian, X.; Zhao, S.; Zhang, P.; An, C. Toward a sustainable future: a holistic environmental, social, and economic assessment of industrial recycling for all-solid-state batteries with oxide-based electrolytes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 59, 21957-66.
23. Troy, S.; Schreiber, A.; Reppert, T.; et al. Life cycle assessment and resource analysis of all-solid-state batteries. Appl. Energy. 2016, 169, 757-67.
24. Zhang, S.; Brandell, D.; Valvo, M.; Steubing, B.; Nordberg, Å. Future climate impact of all-solid-state batteries. J. Clean. Prod. 2025, 525, 146607.
25. Zhang, J.; Ke, X.; Gu, Y.; et al. Cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment of all-solid-state lithium-ion batteries for sustainable design and manufacturing. Int. J. Life. Cycle. Assess. 2022, 27, 227-37.
26. Qian, G.; Zhu, Z.; Guo, P.; et al. Non-destructive and adaptive negative electrode impedance estimation of lithium-ion batteries using ensemble learning. Appl. Energy. 2026, 402, 127017.
27. Moon, Y.; Kim, H.; Nguyen, M. H.; Song, C. K.; Song, W. J.; Park, S. Harnessing native Li2CO3 layers on Li7La3Zr2O12 (LLZO) for high-performance tri-layer composite electrolytes in semi-solid-state batteries. Small 2025, 21, e09544.
28. Wang, W. W.; Zhi, S. T.; Xu, X. T.; Liu, X. Y.; Zhen, H. S. Building a novel electromechanical-thermal model for semi-solid-state batteries. Energies 2025, 18, 844.
29. Li, H.; Zhao, H.; Liu, D.; Li, Z.; Hu, Q. Electro-thermal coupling modeling and heat generation decoupling analysis of semi-solid-state lithium-ion battery. Electrochim. Acta. 2025, 512, 145455.
30. Dilger, N.; Kaluza, A.; Kiesewetter, A.; et al. Definition and reference framework for life cycle technologies in life cycle engineering - a case study on all solid state traction batteries. Proc. CIRP. 2021, 98, 217-22.
31. Falcone, M.; Quattromini, N. F.; Rossi, C.; Pulvirenti, B. Life cycle assessment of a lithium-ion battery pack unit made of cylindrical cells. Batteries 2022, 8, 76.
32. Longo, S.; Antonucci, V.; Cellura, M.; Ferraro, M. Life cycle assessment of storage systems: the case study of a sodium/nickel chloride battery. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 85, 337-46.
33. Verma, S.; Dwivedi, G.; Verma, P. Life cycle assessment of electric vehicles in comparison to combustion engine vehicles: a review. Mater. Today. Proc. 2022, 49, 217-22.
34. Dai, Q.; Kelly, J. C.; Gaines, L.; Wang, M. Life cycle analysis of lithium-ion batteries for automotive applications. Batteries 2019, 5, 48.
35. Degen, F.; Winter, M.; Bendig, D.; Tübke, J. Energy consumption of current and future production of lithium-ion and post lithium-ion battery cells. Nat. Energy. 2023, 8, 1284-95.
36. Lai, X.; Chen, J.; Chen, Q.; et al. Comprehensive assessment of carbon emissions and environmental impacts of sodium-ion batteries and lithium-ion batteries at the manufacturing stage. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 423, 138674.
37. Dou, H.; Hao, H. The greenhouse gas emissions reduction co-benefit of end-of-life electric vehicle battery treatment strategies. Carbon. Footprints. 2023, 2, 2.
38. Kallitsis, E.; Korre, A.; Kelsall, G. H. Life cycle assessment of recycling options for automotive Li-ion battery packs. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 371, 133636.
39. Lai, X.; Gu, H.; Chen, Q.; et al. Investigating greenhouse gas emissions and environmental impacts from the production of lithium-ion batteries in China. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 372, 133756.
40. Degen, F.; Mitterfellner, M.; Kampker, A. Comparative life cycle assessment of lithium-ion, sodium-ion, and solid-state battery cells for electric vehicles. J. Ind. Ecol. 2024, 29, 113-28.






