REFERENCES
1. Nauels, A.; Nicholls, Z.; Möller, T.; et al. Multi-century global and regional sea-level rise commitments from cumulative greenhouse gas emissions in the coming decades. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2025, 15, 1198-204.
2. Tan, X.; Wu, X.; Huang, Z.; et al. Increasing global precipitation whiplash due to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 2796.
3. Huang, M.; Zhai, P. Achieving Paris Agreement temperature goals requires carbon neutrality by middle century with far-reaching transitions in the whole society. Adv. Clim. Chang. Res. 2021, 12, 281-6.
4. United Nations Environment Programme. Emissions Gap Report 2020; United Nations Environment Programme: Nairobi, Kenya, 2020. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3894282?v=pdf&utm_source (accessed 2026-08-11).
5. Bin, S.; Dowlatabadi, H. Consumer lifestyle approach to US energy use and the related CO2 emissions. Energy. Policy. 2005, 33, 197-208.
6. Adnan, M. N.; Safeer, R.; Rashid, A. Consumption based approach of carbon footprint analysis in urban slum and non-slum areas of Rawalpindi. Habitat. Int. 2018, 73, 16-24.
7. Long, Y.; Yoshida, Y.; Zhang, R.; Sun, L.; Dou, Y. Policy implications from revealing consumption-based carbon footprint of major economic sectors in Japan. Energy. Policy. 2018, 119, 339-48.
8. Liu, G.; Zhang, F. China’s carbon inequality of households: Perspectives of the aging society and urban-rural gaps. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2022, 185, 106449.
9. Zhang, C.; Chen, G. Rediscovering climate gerontology: an era for older adults to contribute more to climate change. Sustain. Sci. Pract. Policy. 2024, 20, 2381875.
10. Dalton, M.; O'neill, B.; Prskawetz, A.; Jiang, L.; Pitkin, J. Population aging and future carbon emissions in the United States. Energy. Econ. 2008, 30, 642-75.
12. Wang, X.; Liu, W.; Zhu, Y.; Xiao, Y.; Lv, Y. The hidden carbon costs of aging: how household dependency burden shapes emissions in China. Ecol. Econ. 2026, 240, 108834.
13. Underwood, A.; Zahran, S. The carbon implications of declining household scale economies. Ecol. Econ. 2015, 116, 182-90.
14. Wei, S.; Zhang, X. The Competitive saving motive: evidence from rising sex ratios and savings rates in China. J. Polit. Econ. 2011, 119, 511-64.
15. Rosenzweig, M.; Zhang, J. Co-residence, life-cycle savings and inter-generational support in urban China. Economic Growth Center, Yale University: New Haven, CT, USA, 2014; Discussion Paper No. 20057.
16. Zeng, J.; Qu, J.; Ma, H.; Gou, X. Characteristics and trends of household carbon emissions research from 1993 to 2019: a bibliometric analysis and its implications. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 295, 126468.
17. Wang, Y.; Sun, C.; Fan, Y.; et al. Household carbon emissions research from 2005 to 2024: an analytical review of assessment, influencing factors, and mitigation pathways. Buildings 2025, 15, 3172.
18. Zhang, X.; Wang, Y. How to reduce household carbon emissions: a review of experience and policy design considerations. Energy. Policy. 2017, 102, 116-24.
19. Du, J.; Zhong, Z.; Shi, Q.; Cao, Y.; Yang, C.; Wang, L. A review of household carbon footprint: measurement methods, evolution and emissions assessment. Carbon. Footprints. 2024, 3, 11.
20. Nordström, J.; Shogren, J. F.; Thunström, L. Do parents counter-balance the carbon emissions of their children? PLoS. One. 2020, 15, e0231105.
21. Kenny, T.; Gray, N. F. A preliminary survey of household and personal carbon dioxide emissions in Ireland. Environ. Int. 2009, 35, 259-72.
22. Du, Z.; Xu, J.; Lin, B. What does the digital economy bring to household carbon emissions? From the perspective of energy intensity. Appl. Energy. 2024, 370, 123613.
23. Weber, C.; Perrels, A. Modelling lifestyle effects on energy demand and related emissions. Energy. Policy. 2000, 28, 549-66.
24. Qu, J.; Zeng, J.; Li, Y.; et al. Household carbon dioxide emissions from peasants and herdsmen in northwestern arid-alpine regions, China. Energy. Policy. 2013, 57, 133-40.
25. Hu, Y.; Chen, Y.; Li, Y.; Yang, W. Age structure impacts on household carbon emissions: Based on a social interaction perspective. Ecol. Econ. 2025, 230, 108534.
26. Fan, J.; Zhou, L.; Zhang, Y.; Shao, S.; Ma, M. How does population aging affect household carbon emissions? Evidence from Chinese urban and rural areas. Energy. Econ. 2021, 100, 105356.
27. Druckman, A.; Buck, I.; Hayward, B.; Jackson, T. Time, gender and carbon: a study of the carbon implications of British adults’ use of time. Ecol. Econ. 2012, 84, 153-63.
28. Chen, Y.; Hu, Y. Pathways of population aging on household carbon emissions. Popul. J. 2022, 44, 99-112. (in Chinese).
29. Hu, Z.; Wang, M.; Cheng, Z.; Yang, Z. Impact of marginal and intergenerational effects on carbon emissions from household energy consumption in China. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 273, 123022.
30. Zhao, Q.; Huang, S.; Wang, T.; et al. The influencing factors and future development of energy consumption and carbon emissions in urban households: a review of China’s experience. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 2961.
31. Cai, W.; Lin, X. The impact of population aging on household carbon emissions: evidence from china. J. Jiangnan. Univ. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 2023, 22, 18. (in Chinese).
32. Zhang, J.; Zhu, L.; Liu, J.; Yu, B.; Yu, S. How ageing shapes the relationship between working time and carbon dioxide emissions: evidence from Chinese households. Environ. Impact. Assess. Rev. 2023, 98, 106974.
33. Chen, J.; Li, X.; Geng, Y.; Liu, X.; Li, G. Mechanism analysis and empirical research on urbanization and carbon emissions in China: based on the perspective of economic development, population transfer, and urban expansion. J. Nat. Resour. 2024, 39, 1399-417.
34. O’Neill, B. C.; Dalton, M.; Fuchs, R.; Jiang, L.; Pachauri, S.; Zigova, K. Global demographic trends and future carbon emissions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2010, 107, 17521-6.
35. Zhang, Y.; Wang, F.; Zhang, B. The impacts of household structure transitions on household carbon emissions in China. Ecol. Econ. 2023, 206, 107734.
36. Zhu, P.; Lin, B. Do the elderly consume more energy? Evidence from the retirement policy in urban China. Energy. Policy. 2022, 165, 112928.
37. Ellsworth-krebs, K. Implications of declining household sizes and expectations of home comfort for domestic energy demand. Nat. Energy. 2020, 5, 20-5.
38. Estiri, H. Building and household X-factors and energy consumption at the residential sector: a structural equation analysis of the effects of household and building characteristics on the annual energy consumption of US residential buildings. Energy. Econ. 2014, 43, 178-84.
39. Fremstad, A.; Underwood, A.; Zahran, S. The environmental impact of sharing: household and urban economies in CO2 emissions. Ecol. Econ. 2018, 145, 137-47.
40. Guo, F.; Zheng, X.; Wang, C.; Zhang, L. Sharing matters: household and urban economies of scale for a carbon-neutral future. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2022, 184, 106410.
41. Jack, T.; Ivanova, D. Small is beautiful? Stories of carbon footprints, socio-demographic trends and small households in Denmark. Energy. Res. Soc. Sci. 2021, 78, 102130.
42. Wu, W.; Kanamori, Y.; Zhang, R.; Zhou, Q.; Takahashi, K.; Masui, T. Implications of declining household economies of scale on electricity consumption and sustainability in China. Ecol. Econ. 2021, 184, 106981.
43. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). Facing a Changing World: Women, Population and Climate. The State of World Population 2009; UNFPA: New York, NY, USA, 2009. https://timor-leste.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/SWOP2009report-English1.pdf (accessed 2026-08-11).
44. Han, X.; Wei, C.; Cao, G. Y. Aging, generational shifts, and energy consumption in urban China. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2022, 119, e2210853119.
45. Leung, S. F. Uncertain lifetime, the theory of the consumer, and the life cycle hypothesis. Econometrica 1994, 62, 1233-9. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2951514 (accessed 2026-08-11).
46. Battistin, E.; Brugiavini, A.; Rettore, E.; Weber, G. The retirement consumption puzzle: evidence from a regression discontinuity approach. Am. Econ. Rev. 2009, 99, 2209-26.
47. Brounen, D.; Kok, N.; Quigley, J. M. Residential energy use and conservation: economics and demographics. Eur. Econ. Rev. 2012, 56, 931-45.
48. Okada, A. Is an increased elderly population related to decreased CO2 emissions from road transportation? Energy. Policy. 2012, 45, 286-92.
49. Liddle, B. Consumption-driven environmental impact and age structure change in OECD countries: a cointegration-STIRPAT analysis. DemRes 2011, 24, 749-70.
50. Tong, Y.; Zhou, W. The impact of family population aging on carbon emissions: an empirical study based on the micro perspective of the family. Popul. J. 2020, 42, 78-88. (in Chinese).
51. Willis, K.; Scarpa, R.; Gilroy, R.; Hamza, N. Renewable energy adoption in an ageing population: heterogeneity in preferences for micro-generation technology adoption. Energy. Policy. 2011, 39, 6021-9.
52. Mao, R.; Xu, J. Population aging, consumption budget allocation and sectoral growth. China. Econ. Rev. 2014, 30, 44-65.
53. Mohapatra, G.; Arora, R.; Giri, A. K. Establishing the relationship between population aging and health care expenditure in India. J. Econ. Adm. Sci. 2024, 40, 684-701.
54. Wang, Q.; Kwan, M.; Lin, J.; Dang, N. The impacts of population aging on residential energy consumption and carbon emissions in the United States. Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun. 2025, 12, 6025.
55. Feng, Y.; Wu, H.; Jin, Y.; Wang, L.; Zeng, B. How does population aging affect carbon emissions? Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2023, 30, 41419-34.
56. Zhang, C.; Tan, Z. The relationships between population factors and China’s carbon emissions: does population aging matter? Renew. Sustain. Energy. Rev. 2016, 65, 1018-25.
57. Yang, T.; Wang, Q. The nonlinear effect of population aging on carbon emission-Empirical analysis of ten selected provinces in China. Sci. Total. Environ. 2020, 740, 140057.
58. Xiang, H.; Zeng, X.; Han, H.; An, X. Impact of population aging on carbon emissions in China: an empirical study based on a kaya model. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health. 2023, 20, 1716.
59. Yuan, B.; Zhong, Y.; Li, S.; Zhao, Y. The degree of population aging and living carbon emissions: Evidence from China. J. Environ. Manage. 2024, 353, 120185.
60. Zhao, Y.; Zhao, M.; Zhang, C. The impact of aging and urbanization on CO2 emission in Chinese cities: an empirical analysis. npj. Urban. Sustain. 2026, 6, 316.
61. Ge, X.; Liu, X.; Zhong, M. From aging to greener homes: understanding the link between population aging and household carbon emissions in China. Environ. Impact. Assess. Rev. 2024, 106, 107459.
62. Yu, Y.; Liang, Q.; Liu, L. Impact of population ageing on carbon emissions: a case of China’s urban households. Struct. Change. Econ. Dyn. 2023, 64, 86-100.
63. Tang, L.; Yang, J.; Zheng, J.; et al. Assessing the impacts of fertility and retirement policies on China’s carbon emissions. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2024, 14, 1261-7.
64. Zheng, H.; Long, Y.; Wood, R.; et al. Ageing society in developed countries challenges carbon mitigation. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2022, 12, 241-8.
65. Wang, H.; Wang, M.; Zhang, D.; Zhou, P. Household consumption pattern and CO2 emissions: the age and generational effects. Ecol. Econ. 2026, 240, 108820.
66. Zhang, C.; Chen, G. Antinomy of pronatalist policies: it is time to shift focusing from population sustainability to population well-being. J. Med. Ethics. 2025, 51, 386-8.
67. Shrum, T. R.; Platt, N. S.; Markowitz, E.; Syropoulos, S. A scoping review of the green parenthood effect on environmental and climate engagement. WIREs. Climate. Change. 2023, 14, e818.
68. Heinonen, J.; Olson, S. Carbon footprints of different household types: the sharing benefit illusion. Environ. Res. Commun. 2025, 7, 065010.
69. Shigetomi, Y.; Nansai, K.; Kagawa, S.; Tohno, S. Fertility-rate recovery and double-income policies require solving the carbon gap under the Paris Agreement. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 133, 385-94.
70. Christis, M.; Breemersch, K.; Vercalsteren, A.; Dils, E. A detailed household carbon footprint analysis using expenditure accounts - Case of Flanders (Belgium). J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 228, 1167-75.
71. Yang, L.; Hu, Y.; Wei, X. Assessment of the environmental effects of China’s fertility policy: the impact from increasing numbers of children in households. Environ. Impact. Assess. Rev. 2023, 99, 107006.
72. Long, J. F. Migration and the phases of population redistribution. J. Dev. Econ. 1985, 17, 29-42.
73. Ala-mantila, S.; Heinonen, J.; Junnila, S. Relationship between urbanization, direct and indirect greenhouse gas emissions, and expenditures: a multivariate analysis. Ecol. Econ. 2014, 104, 129-39.
74. Muñoz, P.; Zwick, S.; Mirzabaev, A. The impact of urbanization on Austria’s carbon footprint. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 263, 121326.
75. Lin, B.; Ouyang, X. Energy demand in China: comparison of characteristics between the US and China in rapid urbanization stage. Energy. Convers. Manag. 2014, 79, 128-39.
76. Zhang, M.; Song, Y.; Li, P.; Li, H. Study on affecting factors of residential energy consumption in urban and rural Jiangsu. Renew. Sustain. Energy. Rev. 2016, 53, 330-7.
77. Yuan, B.; Ren, S.; Chen, X. The effects of urbanization, consumption ratio and consumption structure on residential indirect CO2 emissions in China: a regional comparative analysis. Appl. Energy. 2015, 140, 94-106.
78. Qu, J.; Maraseni, T.; Liu, L.; Zhang, Z.; Yusaf, T. A Comparison of household carbon emission patterns of urban and rural China over the 17 year period (1995-2011). Energies 2015, 8, 10537-57.
79. Li, Y.; Zhao, R.; Liu, T.; Zhao, J. Does urbanization lead to more direct and indirect household carbon dioxide emissions? Evidence from China during 1996-2012. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 102, 103-14.
80. Yuan, R.; Li, N.; Zheng, S. Impacts of interprovincial migration on the household energy footprints in China. Appl. Geogr. 2023, 161, 103137.
81. Qi, W.; Li, G. Residential carbon emission embedded in China’s inter-provincial population migration. Energy. Policy. 2020, 136, 111065.
82. Liu, L.; Wu, G.; Wang, J.; Wei, Y. China’s carbon emissions from urban and rural households during 1992-2007. J. Clean. Prod. 2011, 19, 1754-62.
83. Fan, J.; Liao, H.; Liang, Q.; Tatano, H.; Liu, C.; Wei, Y. Residential carbon emission evolutions in urban-rural divided China: an end-use and behavior analysis. Appl. Energy. 2013, 101, 323-32.
84. Guo, H.; Jiang, J.; Li, Y.; Long, X.; Han, J. An aging giant at the center of global warming: Population dynamics and its effect on CO2 emissions in China. J. Environ. Manage. 2023, 327, 116906.
85. Wahl, H. W.; Budnick, A. Theory-driven examination of available data on age(ing) and climate change: an explorative contribution. Z. Gerontol. Geriatr. 2025, 58, 268-74.
