Contemporary surveillance of sinonasal malignancy in adults
Abstract
Sinonasal malignancies are a unique subset of head and neck cancers that necessitate close monitoring due to high local recurrence rates. Surveillance consists of a combination of endoscopy, imaging, and patient-reported symptomatology, but no standardized surveillance protocols currently exist. Strategies historically have been based on guidelines for other head and neck malignancies; however, the unique anatomical and histologic presentation of sinonasal malignancies presents challenges. This review discusses the literature surrounding the utility of each of the different surveillance modalities and highlights techniques under investigation to aid clinicians in optimizing the surveillance of sinonasal malignancies.
Keywords
INTRODUCTION
Sinonasal malignancies make up less than 5% of all head and neck cancers, but while outcomes of many other head and neck cancers have increased dramatically over the last ten years, outcome metrics in sinonasal malignancy have remained relatively stagnant by comparison[1,2]. Even for resectable lesions with negative margins, recurrence rates are between 30%-50% for sinonasal malignancies with the vast majority being local recurrences[3,4]. Despite the clear need for investigation into optimal treatment strategies for sinonasal malignancies, patients with these diagnoses have been excluded from most clinical trials testing novel therapeutic agents for head and neck cancer patients[5]. In treatment guidelines, sinonasal cancers are frequently combined into the greater category, head and neck cancers, and surveillance guidelines often follow these generalized recommendations.
There are limited studies examining optimal posttreatment surveillance strategies for sinonasal pathologies. Patients often present at an advanced stage, thought to be due to the large potential space of the sinuses where tumors can grow, and early symptoms, such as nasal obstruction, are often attributed to benign causes[6]. Additionally, post-operative and post-radiation mucosal inflammation of the paranasal sinuses can endure for much longer in the soft tissue of the skull base than in other regions of the head and neck for reasons that remain unclear[7]. Sinonasal malignancies possess many features that distinguish them from other head and neck malignancies, and there are potential pitfalls to not considering these unique features when planning posttreatment surveillance for these patients.
This review focuses on surveillance following primary treatment for the most common malignancy of the sinonasal tract: sinonasal squamous cell carcinoma (SNSCC), as well as malignancies occurring solely in the sinonasal tract, including sinonasal adenocarcinoma (SNAC), sinonasal neuroendocrine carcinoma (SNEC), sinonasal undifferentiated carcinoma (SNUC), and olfactory neuroblastoma. In addition, the review also covers other rarer malignancies that can occur in the sinonasal tract, such as primary mucosal melanoma (PMM), nuclear protein of the testis (NUT) carcinoma, and extranodal neural killer cell (Nk)/T-cell lymphoma. Due to the unique anatomic presentation, nasopharyngeal carcinoma is not included here. The goal of this work is to review current recommendations, guidelines, and caveats in the surveillance of the above malignancies of the sinonasal tract following primary treatment.
SURVEILLANCE OF MALIGNANCIES IN THE SINONASAL TRACT
When achievable, surgical resection is often the standard of care for sinonasal malignancies, which is then followed by close post-operative surveillance given the high recurrence risk for these patients. The landmark study by de Visscher and Manni in 1994 first highlighted the importance of surveillance and follow-up for patients with squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the head and neck by demonstrating a significant improvement in survival when recurrence in asymptomatic patients is detected at routine visits preceding self-referral[8]. Subsequently, additional studies have made efforts to identify predictors of recurrence, including neural invasion, orbital extension, and histologic subtype for patients with sinonasal malignancies to guide surveillance following treatment[9-11]. According to National Cancer Comprehensive Network (NCCN) head and neck cancer guidelines, patients with sinonasal malignancies (specifically SNSCC) who complete multimodal therapy should undergo endoscopy and radiologic imaging for a minimum of five years due to the high recurrence risk[12]. However, the optimal timing of endoscopy and imaging for cancers of the sinonasal tract is poorly defined. Approximately 70% of physicians follow the NCCN guidelines, but the frequency of surveillance should be individualized based on histology, grade, and other risk factors[13]. The following sections will review the existing surveillance modalities for monitoring for recurrence in patients with sinonasal malignancies and highlight new information and emerging strategies for the surveillance of different malignancies of the sinonasal tract.
ENDOSCOPY
Posttreatment endoscopic examination is an important part of the current standard of care for surveillance of patients with sinonasal malignancy. Endoscopy allows for the assessment of the surface of the nasopharynx and nasal cavity; however, complicated surgical resection and radiation can not only make endoscopic examination more difficult but can also complicate identifying recurrence by exam[14]. Khalili
In patients with recurrence following treatment for sinonasal malignancy, suspicious findings on endoscopic examination are often correlated with surveillance imaging and biopsy. The low PPV of endoscopic examination in asymptomatic patients has been reported to lead to unnecessary biopsies. Additionally, these unnecessary biopsies can be difficult as a result of tissue inflammation, cerebral spinal fluid leaks, and osteonecrosis[17]. Studies have found that routine biopsy of asymptomatic patients in the setting of normal ear-nose-throat (ENT) examination and endoscopy results in no survival benefit during the surveillance of sinonasal malignancies[18].
Endoscopy plays a particularly important role in the surveillance of patients with a subset of rare sinonasal malignancies. Patients with SNAC and low-grade SNEC are much more likely to have local recurrence as opposed to distant metastases[19]; as a result, it is particularly important that these patients undergo interval endoscopy for monitoring disease recurrence. For patients with SNEC, the optimal surveillance strategy may vary based on tumor grade. Low-grade tumors may be followed with endoscopy, whereas high-grade tumors, such as the small cell variant, should also be monitored by serial imaging in order to detect distant metastasis[19]. These recommendations mirror the surveillance guidelines for small cell carcinoma in the lung due to a deficiency of prospective studies of surveillance for patients with SNEC. In addition to sinonasal symptoms, patients with PMM may present with a pigmented lesion on ENT examination that can be visible on endoscopy. Rarely, a lesion that is nonpigmented may be seen[20]. On exam, PMM macules are irregular and asymmetric, which can differentiate PMM macules from melanosis.
IMAGING
Posttreatment surveillance imaging plays an essential role in care of the patient with a sinonasal malignancy. Computerized tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18FDG) positron emission tomography (PET)/CT are frequently used in combination, and certain modalities have been reported to have different advantages. Surveillance imaging for sinonasal malignancies can be challenging to interpret, given that edema of scarred mucosa following surgical resection and enhancement near a tissue flap can last for many months after primary treatment[21]. It is important that imaging choices encompass all areas of possible recurrence, including all areas of potential distant metastasis, and should take into account the varying risk of distant metastasis for diverse subtypes of sinonasal malignancies. Despite the fact that most recurrences are local, studies have shown that imaging frequently diagnoses more recurrences of sinonasal malignancy than endoscopy alone. As a result, biopsies driven by imaging have improved sensitivity, accuracy, and PPV compared to biopsies performed solely following suspicious findings on endoscopy (PPV 72% vs. 43%)[15,16]. However, the utilization of endoscopy to clinically correlate imaging findings is often useful. Imaging has a high negative predictive value (NPV) in monitoring for recurrence of sinonasal malignancy (91%)[15,22]. The high NPV suggests that negative surveillance imaging can be helpful in identifying patients in remission, particularly in the surveillance of asymptomatic patients without concerning endoscopic findings. The following sections will discuss the different imaging types used in the surveillance of sinonasal malignancies, highlighting recent advances and unique advantages of different modalities.
MRI
MRI is thought to be the gold standard for assessing the recurrence of sinonasal malignancies. Generally, a baseline MRI of the brain and sinonasal cavity will be performed at
New techniques for MRI have attempted to help refine and standardize the detection of recurrence of sinonasal malignancy. Dynamic postcontrast-enhanced MRI has proven to be useful in distinguishing post-radiation fibrosis from tumor recurrence, which can demonstrate similar enhancement on standard MRI[22,27]. Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) MRI may also have utility in differentiating posttreatment inflammation from tumor recurrence. As a result of the complex bone-air-fat interface, DWI has high-susceptibility artifacts that can reveal variations on enhancement for particular sinonasal malignancy subtypes, particularly intestinal-type adenocarcinoma[21]. Because the diffusion of water molecules is limited in solid tumors with hypercellularity, higher apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) values can be indicative of hypocellular tissue with apoptosis or necrosis[28]. As a result, DWI has been investigated as a tool that could allow for earlier surveillance imaging of patients with head and neck cancers[29,30]. With additional research, innovative techniques to assess for recurrence that can be distinguished from posttreatment inflammation and fibrosis will continue to emerge, further improving MRI, the gold standard imaging modality for surveillance of sinonasal malignancies.
COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
Computed tomography (CT) has largely been overtaken by MRI as the primary imaging modality for monitoring the recurrence of sinonasal malignancies; however, a few factors could warrant the use of CT for surveillance imaging. CT can have higher utility in assessing for acute intracranial complications in the post-operative period[21]. Because of its high spatial resolution, CT can be particularly valuable in assessing the resorption of thin bony structures and could play a role in surveillance imaging for tumor subtypes with a particular predilection for bony involvement. CT imaging has been suggested to be equivalent to MRI for a few subtypes of sinonasal malignancy, namely SNUCs and extranodal Nk/T-cell lymphoma. SNUCs are characteristically noncalcified on CT and MRI, making recurrence difficult to evaluate on either modality[31]. NUT carcinoma has distinct findings on CT, including hypoattenuation, heterogeneous enhancement, and infiltrative mass with not well-defined margins[32]. NUT carcinoma also exhibits necrosis and calcification with invasion into nearby structures, often in central airways and vascular structures, which can be assessed on CT and MRI[33]. In younger patients, surgeons should consider the risks of secondary malignancy from repeated CT radiation when choosing optimal imaging modality[34]. Overall, CT is most useful when combined with 18FDG-PET imaging.
PET/CT
The NCCN guidelines recommend 18FDG-PET/CT for surveillance following completion of primary treatment for the head and neck cancer[12]. Multiple studies have demonstrated that PET/CT can identify approximately 95% of recurrences that are asymptomatic in the first two years following completion of primary treatment[12,22,35] and has a higher sensitivity when compared to CT/MRI alone[36]. PET/CT also has the powerful advantage of the ability to detect distant metastases as unexpected areas of hypermetabolism[37]. However, it is characteristically not specific for cancerous cells because immature granulation tissue, macrophages and fibroblasts all avidly uptake 18FDG, particularly following radiotherapy[38,39]. As a result, PET/CT is very reassuring when negative with a high NPV, but has poor specificity, particularly in the context of sinonasal malignancy[21]. Studies have demonstrated that specificity falls to ~40% and PPV to ~50% for sinonasal malignancies, most likely due to the nonspecific radiotracer update in the inflammatory environment in the posttreatment sinonasal cavity[27,39]. Many centers that care for patients with sinonasal malignancy will perform 18FDG-PET between one and four times per year, but this must be balanced with costs and reduced quality of life for patients as a result of false positives[40,41].
Generally, for head and neck cancer patients, practice guidelines recommend a three-month PET/CT following completion of primary treatment[22,42-44]. A retrospective study of PET/CT in surveillance of sinonasal malignancy between 2000 and 2015 demonstrated that compared to head and neck cancers overall, sinonasal tumors have a prolonged hypermetabolic period[17]. The team found that the specificity and PPV of PET/CT were improved when performed at baseline and then at least six months posttreatment, consistent with previous findings[45]. The prolonged period of hypermetabolism in the posttreatment sinonasal skull base may warrant reevaluation of the general recommendation that patients with head and neck cancer have a PET/CT completed by 10-12 weeks following primary treatment[17,45]. Although the optimal timing of surveillance PET/CT may remain unclear, the lack of pathologic FDG uptake on the first PET/CT following treatment was associated with improved overall survival (OS) for patients with SNSCC[46]. However, increasing the total number or frequency of scans during the first year has not been associated with reduced time to recurrence. Overall, at least one surveillance PET/CT should be performed for patients with sinonasal malignancy, although the optimal timing for PET/CT is still under investigation[47,48].
18FDG-PET/CT can play a particularly important role in the surveillance of patients with some subtypes of rare sinonasal malignancies. For patients with high-grade SNEC, recurrence can present locoregionally or distantly metastasis, perhaps warranting closer surveillance of these patients with 18FDG-PET/CT[49,50]. There are no definitive recommendations regarding the use of Gadolinium-DOTATATE PET/CT for SNEC, but a few reports have evaluated its utility for diagnosing low-grade SNEC where no radiotracer uptake was found on FDG PET/CT[51]. There have also been evaluations on the use of Gadolinium-DOTATATE PET/CT for the evaluation and surveillance of olfactory neuroblastomas, given that 99% of these tumors are positive for SSTR2 expression[52]. Additionally, SNUC is an aggressive disease with a partial neuroendocrine profile that confers a poor prognosis, and Gadolinium-DOTATATE PET/CT may be able to assist in the close surveillance of these patients. However, the use of Gadolinium-DOTATATE PET/CT for the surveillance of SNUC remains under investigation[48]. SNUCs are often locally recurrent and frequently metastasize, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality. Mucosal melanoma has a high recurrence rate with a tendency for distant failure (38%-57%) and demonstrates high FDG avidity, making PET/CT particularly useful[19,53,54]. FDG PET/CT is also recommended in patients with NUT carcinoma, given the particularly high risk for metastatic disease. PET/CT should be performed for optimal detection of metastases in patients with extranodal Nk/T-cell lymphoma[55]. Involvement of the bone marrow is rare, but aspiration and biopsy can be considered for evaluation, particularly given that PET/CT may also have the ability to detect bone marrow disease[56,57]. For patients with olfactory neuroblastoma, PET/CT is often not indicated except when symptomatic distant metastatic disease or pathology shows high-grade features. Somatostatin receptor-based methods can also be utilized because these tumors frequently express somatostatin receptors[58,59].
The World Health Organization (WHO) described human papillomavirus (HPV)-related multiphenotypic sinonasal carcinoma as an updated, new subtype of nonkeratinizing SCC of the sinonasal tract in 2017. HPV-related multiphenotypic sinonasal carcinoma is associated with greater five-year OS, including
EMERGING SURVEILLANCE STRATEGIES AND LIFETIME SURVEILLANCE
For patients with extranodal Nk/T-cell lymphoma of the sinonasal tract, in addition to endoscopy and symptom-guided imaging, disease surveillance can include plasma Ebstein-Barr Virus (EBV) DNA titers[66]. In one study, patients with EBV DNA levels were used to develop the prognostic index of natural killer lymphoma (PINK-E) score which risk stratifies patients into low, intermediate, and high-risk cohorts. Reports of late relapses, even up to three decades after remission, have been reported for extranodal
Long-term surveillance beyond the standard five years is also recommended for patients with olfactory neuroblastoma, with local recurrence rates up to 20%-40% at ten years posttreatment[70]. Optimal surveillance of patients with olfactory neuroblastoma following primary treatment remains unclear; nevertheless, one protocol recommended MRI studies at baseline of both the brain and maxillofacial area every 2-4 months after treatment, followed by serial imaging studies at four or six-month intervals for five years, and then annual imaging studies for the lifetime of the patient[71]. The study recommends that examinations include endoscopy and overlap with the surveillance imaging timetable, and further imaging should be directed by patient-reported symptoms and examination findings.
CONCLUSION
Malignancies of the sinonasal tract are unique among head and neck cancers and require a nuanced approach to surveillance following primary treatment. Inflammation and postsurgical changes can persist appreciably longer than other head and neck cancers, which has implications for the ideal timing of surveillance imaging, particularly PET/CT. Endoscopy is an important part of surveillance following primary treatment and is most valuable when partnered with a thorough history and physical exam, probing for potential symptoms of recurrence. MRI is the gold standard imaging modality for surveillance for sinonasal malignancy, but the great diversity of the biology and behavior of sinonasal cancers can make it difficult to construct broad guidelines or generalizable surveillance protocols. Risk factors, including staging, histology, tumor grade, and others, should direct the frequency and length of follow-up until more studies are conducted on sinonasal malignancies. Overall, physicians should be mindful that sinonasal malignancies are unique among head and neck cancers and often require a tailored and nuanced surveillance strategy for optimal patient care.
DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Literature review, manuscript preparation, and manuscript revisions: Sell EA
Review design, literature review, manuscript preparation, and manuscript revisions: Panara K
Review design, manuscript preparations and revisions: Workman AD
Review conception, manuscript preparations and revisions: Adappa ND
Availability of data and materials
All referenced sources are available via Pubmed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/).
Financial support and sponsorship
Adappa ND is funded by the grant titlted “Immune function of bitter taste receptors in human macrophages” (R01AI167971).
Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Copyright
© The Author(s) 2024.
REFERENCES
1. Abdou R, Baredes S. Population-based results in the management of sinonasal and ventral skull base malignancies. Otolaryngol Clin North Am 2017;50:481-97.
2. Sharma RK, Irace AL, Schlosser RJ, et al. Conditional and overall disease-specific survival in patients with paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer: improved outcomes in the endoscopic era. Am J Rhinol Allergy 2022;36:57-64.
3. Mirghani H, Mortuaire G, Armas GL, et al. Sinonasal cancer: analysis of oncological failures in 156 consecutive cases. Head Neck 2014;36:667-74.
4. Li X, Li J, Di B, et al. [Recurrence and surgical salvage of sinonasal squamous cell carcinoma]. Zhonghua Er Bi Yan Hou Tou Jing Wai Ke Za Zhi 2013;48:186-90.
5. Bossi P, Hermsen M, Lechner M, Franchi A. Precision medicine in rare tumors and the need for multicenter trials and international collaboratives: sinonasal cancer as paradigm. Oral Oncol 2020;109:104737.
6. Katz TS, Mendenhall WM, Morris CG, Amdur RJ, Hinerman RW, Villaret DB. Malignant tumors of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses. Head Neck 2002;24:821-9.
7. Harvey RJ, Pitzer G, Nissman DB, et al. PET/CT in the assessment of previously treated skull base malignancies. Head Neck 2010;32:76-84.
8. de Visscher AVM, Manni JJ. Routine long-term follow-up in patients treated with curative intent for squamous cell carcinoma of the larynx, pharynx, and oral cavity. Does it make sense? Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1994;120:934-9.
9. Dutta R, Dubal PM, Svider PF, Liu JK, Baredes S, Eloy JA. Sinonasal malignancies: a population-based analysis of site-specific incidence and survival. Laryngoscope 2015;125:2491-7.
10. Porceddu S, Martin J, Shanker G, et al. Paranasal sinus tumors: Peter MacCallum Cancer Institute experience. Head Neck 2004;26:322-30.
11. Suárez C, Ferlito A, Lund VJ, et al. Management of the orbit in malignant sinonasal tumors. Head Neck 2008;30:242-50.
12. Pfister DG, Spencer S, Adelstein D, et al. Head and neck cancers, Version 2.2020, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2020;18:873-98.
13. Workman AD, Palmer JN, Adappa ND. Posttreatment surveillance for sinonasal malignancy. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2017;25:86-92.
14. Nyquist GG, Patel PN, Vimawala S, et al. Surgery with post-operative endoscopy improves recurrence detection in sinonasal malignancies. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 2022;131:140-6.
15. Khalili S, Worrall DM, Brooks S, et al. Endoscopy versus imaging: analysis of surveillance methods in sinonasal malignancy. Head Neck 2016;38:1229-33.
16. Zocchi J, Pietrobon G, Campomagnani I, et al. The role of a post therapeutic surveillance program for sinonasal malignancies: analysis of 417 patients. Head Neck 2020;42:963-73.
17. Schwartz JS, Brooks SG, Stubbs V, et al. Temporal patterns of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography sinonasal uptake after treatment of sinonasal malignancy. Int Forum Allergy Rhinol 2016;6:1301-7.
18. Chao SS, Loh KS, Tan LKS. Modalities of surveillance in treated nasopharyngeal cancer. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2003;129:61-4.
19. Thawani R, Kim MS, Arastu A, et al. The contemporary management of cancers of the sinonasal tract in adults. CA Cancer J Clin 2023;73:72-112.
20. Guevara-Canales JO, Gutiérrez-Morales MM, Sacsaquispe-Contreras SJS, Sánchez-Lihón J, Morales-Vadillo R. Malignant melanoma of the oral cavity. Review of the literature and experience in a Peruvian Population. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal 2012;17:e206-11.
21. Maroldi R, Ravanelli M, Farina D, et al. Post-treatment evaluation of paranasal sinuses after treatment of sinonasal neoplasms. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2015;25:667-85.
22. Kubota K, Yokoyama J, Yamaguchi K, et al. FDG-PET delayed imaging for the detection of head and neck cancer recurrence after radio-chemotherapy: comparison with MRI/CT. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2004;31:590-5.
23. Lund VJ, Stammberger H, Nicolai P, et al. European position paper on endoscopic management of tumours of the nose, paranasal sinuses and skull base. Rhinol Suppl 2010;22:1-143.
24. Loevner LA, Sonners AI. Imaging of neoplasms of the paranasal sinuses. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2002;10:467-93.
25. Ng SH, Liu HM, Ko SF, Hao SP, Chong VFH. Posttreatment imaging of the nasopharynx. Eur J Radiol 2002;44:82-95.
26. Ahmad S, Le CH, Chiu AG, Chang EH. Incidence of intracranial radiation necrosis following postoperative radiation therapy for sinonasal malignancies. Laryngoscope 2016;126:2445-50.
27. Oysu AS, Ayanoglu E, Kodalli N, Oysu C, Uneri C, Erzen C. Dynamic contrast-enhanced MRI in the differentiation of posttreatment fibrosis from recurrent carcinoma of the head and neck. Clin Imaging 2005;29:307-12.
28. Tangyoosuk T, Lertbutsayanukul C, Jittapiromsak N. Utility of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in predicting the treatment response of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Neuroradiol J 2022;35:477-85.
29. Galbán CJ, Mukherji SK, Chenevert TL, et al. A feasibility study of parametric response map analysis of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scans of head and neck cancer patients for providing early detection of therapeutic efficacy. Transl Oncol 2009;2:184-90.
30. Vandecaveye V, Dirix P, De Keyzer F, et al. Predictive value of diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging during chemoradiotherapy for head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Eur Radiol 2010;20:1703-14.
31. Kawaguchi M, Kato H, Tomita H, et al. Imaging characteristics of malignant sinonasal tumors. J Clin Med 2017;6:116.
32. Bair RJ, Chick JF, Chauhan NR, French C, Madan R. Demystifying NUT midline carcinoma: radiologic and pathologic correlations of an aggressive malignancy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2014;203:W391-9.
33. de González AB, Mahesh M, Kim KP, et al. Projected cancer risks from computed tomographic scans performed in the United States in 2007. Arch Intern Med 2009;169:2071-7.
34. Brenner DJ, Hall EJ. Computed tomography - an increasing source of radiation exposure. N Engl J Med 2007;357:2277-84.
35. Lee JC, Kim JS, Lee JH, et al. F-18 FDG-PET as a routine surveillance tool for the detection of recurrent head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Oral Oncol 2007;43:686-92.
36. Anzai Y, Carroll WR, Quint DJ, et al. Recurrence of head and neck cancer after surgery or irradiation: prospective comparison of
37. Villar R, Ramos B, Acosta M, Haro JJ, Gómez A. Recurrent adenocarcinoma of the sinonasal tract. Oral Maxillofac Surg 2013;17:155-8.
38. Kubota R, Yamada S, Kubota K, Ishiwata K, Tamahashi N, Ido T. Intratumoral distribution of fluorine-18-fluorodeoxyglucose in vivo: high accumulation in macrophages and granulation tissues studied by microautoradiography. J Nucl Med 1992;33:1972-80.
39. Reinhardt MJ, Kubota K, Yamada S, Iwata R, Yaegashi H. Assessment of cancer recurrence in residual tumors after fractionated radiotherapy: a comparison of fluorodeoxyglucose, L-methionine and thymidine. J Nucl Med 1997;38:280-7.
40. Abgral R, Querellou S, Potard G, et al. Does 18F-FDG PET/CT improve the detection of posttreatment recurrence of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma in patients negative for disease on clinical follow-up? J Nucl Med 2009;50:24-9.
41. Workman AD, Glicksman JT, Parasher AK, et al. 18FDG PET/CT in routine surveillance of asymptomatic patients following treatment of sinonasal neoplasms. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2017;157:1068-74.
42. Isles MG, McConkey C, Mehanna HM. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the role of positron emission tomography in the follow up of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma following radiotherapy or chemoradiotherapy. Clin Otolaryngol 2008;33:210-22.
43. Keski-Säntti H, Mustonen T, Schildt J, Saarilahti K, Mäkitie AA. FDG-PET/CT in the assessment of treatment response after oncologic treatment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Clin Med Insights Ear Nose Throat 2014;7:25-9.
44. Gupta T, Master Z, Kannan S, et al. Diagnostic performance of post-treatment FDG PET or FDG PET/CT imaging in head and neck cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2011;38:2083-95.
45. Gil Z, Even-Sapir E, Margalit N, Fliss DM. Integrated PET/CT system for staging and surveillance of skull base tumors. Head Neck 2007;29:537-45.
46. Abu-Ghanem S, Yafit D, Ghanayem M, Abergel A, Yehuda M, Fliss DM. Utility of first positron emission tomography-computed tomography scan as a prognostic tool following treatment of sinonasal and skull base malignancies. Head Neck 2019;41:701-6.
47. Ozturk K, Gencturk M, Caicedo-Granados E, Li F, Cayci Z. Performance of whole-body 18F-FDG PET/CT as a posttreatment surveillance tool for sinonasal malignancies. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2019;276:847-55.
48. Akay S, Pollard JH, Saad Eddin A, et al. PET/CT imaging in treatment planning and surveillance of sinonasal neoplasms. Cancers 2023;15:3759.
49. Patel TD, Vazquez A, Dubal PM, Baredes S, Liu JK, Eloy JA. Sinonasal neuroendocrine carcinoma: a population-based analysis of incidence and survival. Int Forum Allergy Rhinol 2015;5:448-53.
50. van der Laan TP, Iepsma R, Witjes MJH, van der Laan BFAM, Plaat BEC, Halmos GB. Meta-analysis of 701 published cases of sinonasal neuroendocrine carcinoma: the importance of differentiation grade in determining treatment strategy. Oral Oncol 2016;63:1-9.
51. Liu KY, Goldrich DY, Ninan SJ, et al. The value of 68Gallium-DOTATATE PET/CT in sinonasal neuroendocrine tumor management: a case series. Head Neck 2021;43:E30-40.
52. Roytman M, Tassler AB, Kacker A, et al. [68Ga]-DOTATATE PET/CT and PET/MRI in the diagnosis and management of esthesioneuroblastoma: illustrative cases. J Neurosurg Case Lessons 2021;1:CASE2058.
53. Amit M, Tam S, Abdelmeguid AS, et al. Patterns of treatment failure in patients with sinonasal mucosal melanoma. Ann Surg Oncol 2018;25:1723-9.
54. Tzelnick S, Levin EG, Yacobi D, Mizrachi A, Popovtzer A, Soudry E. Recurrence patterns and efficacy of surveillance modalities for sinonasal malignancies. Am J Rhinol Allergy 2022;36:473-9.
56. Wong KF, Chan JKC, Cheung MMC, So JCC. Bone marrow involvement by nasal NK cell lymphoma at diagnosis is uncommon. Am J Clin Pathol 2001;115:266-70.
57. Wang Y, Xie L, Tian R, et al. PET/CT-based bone-marrow assessment shows potential in replacing routine bone-marrow biopsy in part of patients newly diagnosed with extranodal natural killer/T-cell lymphoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2019;145:2529-39.
58. Nowak B, Di Martino E, Jänicke S, et al. Diagnostic evaluation of malignant head and neck cancer by F-18-FDG PET compared to CT/MRI. Nuklearmedizin 1999;38:312-8.
59. Ramsay HA, Kairemo KJA, Jekunen AP. Somatostatin receptor imaging of olfactory neuroblastoma. J Laryngol Otol 1996;110:1161-3.
60. Bishop JA, Ogawa T, Stelow EB, et al. Human papillomavirus-related carcinoma with adenoid cystic-like features: a peculiar variant of head and neck cancer restricted to the sinonasal tract. Am J Surg Pathol 2013;37:836-44.
61. Zupancic M, Näsman A. Human papillomavirus-related multiphenotypic sinonasal carcinoma-an even broader tumor entity? Viruses 2021;13:1861.
62. Chang Sing Pang KJW, Mur T, Collins L, Rao SR, Faden DL. Human papillomavirus in sinonasal squamous cell carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancers 2020;13:45.
63. Naegele S, Efthymiou V, Das D, et al. Detection and monitoring of circulating tumor HPV DNA in HPV-associated sinonasal and nasopharyngeal cancers. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2023;149:179-81.
64. Huang SH, Jacinto JCK, O’Sullivan B, et al. Clinical presentation and outcome of human papillomavirus-positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma in a North American cohort. Cancer 2022;128:2908-21.
65. Lewis JS Jr, Beadle B, Bishop JA, et al. Human papillomavirus testing in head and neck carcinomas: guideline from the College of American Pathologists. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2018;142:559-97.
66. Kim SJ, Yoon DH, Jaccard A, et al. A prognostic index for natural killer cell lymphoma after non-anthracycline-based treatment: a multicentre, retrospective analysis. Lancet Oncol 2016;17:389-400.
67. Au WY, Kim SJ, Yiu HHY, et al. Clinicopathological features and outcome of late relapses of natural killer cell lymphomas 10-29 years after initial remission. Am J Hematol 2010;85:362-3.
68. Kim SJ, Park Y, Kim BS, Kim I, Ko YH, Kim WS. Extranodal natural killer/T-cell lymphoma with long-term survival and repeated relapses: does it indicate the presence of indolent subtype? Korean J Hematol 2012;47:202-6.
69. Kommalapati A, Tella SH, Ganti AK, Armitage JO. Natural killer/T-cell neoplasms: analysis of incidence, patient characteristics, and survival outcomes in the United States. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk 2018;18:475-9.
70. Dulguerov P, Allal AS, Calcaterra TC. Esthesioneuroblastoma: a meta-analysis and review. Lancet Oncol 2001;2:683-90.
Cite This Article
How to Cite
Sell, E. A.; Panara K.; Workman A. D.; Adappa N. D. Contemporary surveillance of sinonasal malignancy in adults. Mini-invasive. Surg. 2024, 8, 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.20517/2574-1225.2023.105
Download Citation
Export Citation File:
Type of Import
Tips on Downloading Citation
Citation Manager File Format
Type of Import
Direct Import: When the Direct Import option is selected (the default state), a dialogue box will give you the option to Save or Open the downloaded citation data. Choosing Open will either launch your citation manager or give you a choice of applications with which to use the metadata. The Save option saves the file locally for later use.
Indirect Import: When the Indirect Import option is selected, the metadata is displayed and may be copied and pasted as needed.
Comments
Comments must be written in English. Spam, offensive content, impersonation, and private information will not be permitted. If any comment is reported and identified as inappropriate content by OAE staff, the comment will be removed without notice. If you have any queries or need any help, please contact us at support@oaepublish.com.