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Figure 2. Roles of EVs in cardiovascular diseases. EVs promote vascular endothelial repair and regeneration, regulate angiogenesis and formation of collateral circulation, modulate vascular inflammation and immune response, and regulate the phenotype and function of vascular smooth muscle cells. Created in BioRender. gN, lý. (2025) https://BioRender.com/r0i0fed. EVs: Extracellular vesicles; IL-1β: interleukin-1β; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; IL-10: interleukin-10; CCN-2 protein: cellular communication network factor 2; MSCs: mesenchymal stem cells; ASC: adipose-derived stem cell; hiPSC: human induced pluripotent stem cell; AnxA1: annexin A1; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; MMPs: matrix metalloproteinases; HMGB1: high-mobility group box 1; NSCs: neural stem cells.