REFERENCES
1. Roth GA, Mensah GA, Johnson CO, et al.; GBD-NHLBI-JACC Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases Writing Group. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risk factors, 1990-2019: update from the GBD 2019 study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76:2982-3021.
2. Roth GA, Johnson C, Abajobir A, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of cardiovascular diseases for 10 causes, 1990 to 2015. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70:1-25.
3. Vogel B, Acevedo M, Appelman Y, et al. The Lancet women and cardiovascular disease Commission: reducing the global burden by 2030. Lancet. 2021;397:2385-438.
4. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, et al.; INTERHEART Study Investigators. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004;364:937-52.
5. Ko SH, Kim HS. Menopause-associated lipid metabolic disorders and foods beneficial for postmenopausal women. Nutrients. 2020;12:202.
6. Bozkurt B, Aguilar D, Deswal A, et al.; American Heart Association Heart Failure and Transplantation Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Hypertension; and Council on Quality and Outcomes Research. Contributory risk and management of comorbidities of hypertension, obesity, diabetes mellitus, hyperlipidemia, and metabolic syndrome in chronic heart failure: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2016;134:e535-78.
7. Mulder CL, Lassi ZS, Grieger JA, et al. Cardio-metabolic risk factors among young infertile women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BJOG. 2020;127:930-9.
8. Handelsman Y, Anderson JE, Bakris GL, et al. DCRM 2.0: multispecialty practice recommendations for the management of diabetes, cardiorenal, and metabolic diseases. Metabolism. 2024;159:155931.
9. Gerdts E, Regitz-Zagrosek V. Sex differences in cardiometabolic disorders. Nat Med. 2019;25:1657-66.
10. Xu Y, Qiao J. Association of insulin resistance and elevated androgen levels with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS): a review of literature. J Healthc Eng. 2022;2022:9240569.
11. Tadic M, Cuspidi C, Vasic D, Kerkhof PLM. Cardiovascular implications of diabetes, metabolic syndrome, thyroid disease, and cardio-oncology in women. In: Kerkhof PLM, Miller VM, editors. Sex-specific analysis of cardiovascular function. Cham: Springer International Publishing; 2018. pp. 471-88.
12. Henry CJ. Basal metabolic rate studies in humans: measurement and development of new equations. Public Health Nutr. 2005;8:1133-52.
15. Maciak S, Sawicka D, Sadowska A, et al. Low basal metabolic rate as a risk factor for development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care. 2020;8:e001381.
16. Piaggi P, Thearle MS, Bogardus C, Krakoff J. Lower energy expenditure predicts long-term increases in weight and fat mass. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98:E703-7.
17. Ruggiero C, Metter EJ, Melenovsky V, et al. High basal metabolic rate is a risk factor for mortality: the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2008;63:698-706.
18. Fabbri E, An Y, Schrack JA, et al. Energy metabolism and the burden of multimorbidity in older adults: results from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2015;70:1297-303.
19. Zampino M, AlGhatrif M, Kuo PL, Simonsick EM, Ferrucci L. Longitudinal changes in resting metabolic rates with aging are accelerated by diseases. Nutrients. 2020;12:3061.
20. Ventura-Clapier R, Piquereau J, Garnier A, Mericskay M, Lemaire C, Crozatier B. Gender issues in cardiovascular diseases. Focus on energy metabolism. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis. 2020;1866:165722.
21. Ward LJ, Nilsson S, Hammar M, et al. Resistance training decreases plasma levels of adipokines in postmenopausal women. Sci Rep. 2020;10:19837.
22. Chistiakov DA, Shkurat TP, Melnichenko AA, Grechko AV, Orekhov AN. The role of mitochondrial dysfunction in cardiovascular disease: a brief review. Ann Med. 2018;50:121-7.
23. Riley M, Elborn JS, McKane WR, Bell N, Stanford CF, Nicholls DP. Resting energy expenditure in chronic cardiac failure. Clin Sci. 1991;80:633-9.
24. Poehlman ET, Scheffers J, Gottlieb SS, Fisher ML, Vaitekevicius P. Increased resting metabolic rate in patients with congestive heart failure. Ann Intern Med. 1994;121:860-2.
25. Zhao P, Han F, Liang X, et al. Causal effects of basal metabolic rate on cardiovascular disease: a bidirectional Mendelian randomization study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2024;13:e031447.
26. Chen K, Zhang Y, Zhou S, Jin C, Xiang M, Ma H. The association between the basal metabolic rate and cardiovascular disease: a two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Eur J Clin Invest. 2024;54:e14153.
27. Li Y, Zhai H, Kang L, Chu Q, Zhao X, Li R. Causal association between basal metabolic rate and risk of cardiovascular diseases: a univariable and multivariable Mendelian randomization study. Sci Rep. 2023;13:12487.
28. Alcantara JMA, Osuna-Prieto FJ, Plaza-Florido A. Associations between intra-assessment resting metabolic rate variability and health-related factors. Metabolites. 2022;12:1218.
29. Alcantara JMA, Osuna-Prieto FJ, Castillo MJ, Plaza-Florido A, Amaro-Gahete FJ. Intra-assessment resting metabolic rate variability is associated with cardiometabolic risk factors in middle-aged adults. J Clin Med. 2023;12:7321.
30. Ali N, Mahmood S, Manirujjaman M, et al. Hypertension prevalence and influence of basal metabolic rate on blood pressure among adult students in Bangladesh. BMC Public Health. 2017;18:58.
31. Kim GH, Ryan JJ, Archer SL. The role of redox signaling in epigenetics and cardiovascular disease. Antioxid Redox Signal. 2013;18:1920-36.
32. Miller VM, Duckles SP. Vascular actions of estrogens: functional implications. Pharmacol Rev. 2008;60:210-41.
33. Qiu Y, Chang S, Zeng Y, Wang X. Advances in mitochondrial dysfunction and its role in cardiovascular diseases. Cells. 2025;14:1621.
35. Li J, Li X, Song S, et al. Mitochondria spatially and temporally modulate VSMC phenotypes via interacting with cytoskeleton in cardiovascular diseases. Redox Biol. 2023;64:102778.
36. Kararigas G, Fliegner D, Forler S, et al. Comparative proteomic analysis reveals sex and estrogen receptor β effects in the pressure overloaded heart. J Proteome Res. 2014;13:5829-36.
37. Mason FE, Pronto JRD, Alhussini K, Maack C, Voigt N. Cellular and mitochondrial mechanisms of atrial fibrillation. Basic Res Cardiol. 2020;115:72.
38. Kang KW, Lee SK. Mechanistic insights into heart failure induction in ovariectomized rats: the role of mitochondrial dysfunction. Medicine. 2025;104:e43709.
39. Pavón N, Martínez-Abundis E, Hernández L, et al. Sexual hormones: effects on cardiac and mitochondrial activity after ischemia-reperfusion in adult rats. Gender difference. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2012;132:135-46.
40. Uribe-Alvarez C, Lira-Silva E, Morales-García L, et al. Estrogen degradation metabolites: some effects on heart mitochondria. J Xenobiot. 2025;15:170.
41. Peterson LR, Soto PF, Herrero P, et al. Impact of gender on the myocardial metabolic response to obesity. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2008;1:424-33.
42. Goveia J, Stapor P, Carmeliet P. Principles of targeting endothelial cell metabolism to treat angiogenesis and endothelial cell dysfunction in disease. EMBO Mol Med. 2014;6:1105-20.
43. Wilson C, Lee MD, Buckley C, Zhang X, McCarron JG. Mitochondrial ATP production is required for endothelial cell control of vascular tone. Function. 2023;4:zqac063.
44. Rutkai I, Dutta S, Katakam PV, Busija DW. Dynamics of enhanced mitochondrial respiration in female compared with male rat cerebral arteries. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2015;309:H1490-500.
45. Li XT, Li XY, Tian T, et al. The UCP2/PINK1/LC3b-mediated mitophagy is involved in the protection of NRG1 against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. Redox Biol. 2025;80:103511.
46. Wu H, Ye M, Liu D, et al. UCP2 protect the heart from myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury via induction of mitochondrial autophagy. J Cell Biochem. 2019;120:15455-66.
47. Zheng Z, Lu H, Wang X, et al. Integrative analysis of genes provides insights into the molecular and immune characteristics of mitochondria-related genes in atherosclerosis. Genomics. 2025;117:111013.
48. Eyster KM. The estrogen receptors: an overview from different perspectives. In: Eyster KM, editor. Estrogen receptors. New York: Springer; 2016. pp. 1-10.
49. Li Y, Yang J, Li S, et al. N-myc downstream-regulated gene 2, a novel estrogen-targeted gene, is involved in the regulation of Na+/K+-ATPase. J Biol Chem. 2011;286:32289-99.
50. Tham YK, Bernardo BC, Claridge B, et al. Estrogen receptor alpha deficiency in cardiomyocytes reprograms the heart-derived extracellular vesicle proteome and induces obesity in female mice. Nat Cardiovasc Res. 2023;2:268-89.
51. Feng X, Wang C, Wu J. The role of estrogen and its membrane receptor G protein-coupled estrogen pathway in regulating glucose and lipid metabolism and imbalance of inflammatory response: the latest research progress. Chin J Geriatr. 2021;40:393-6.
52. Mahboobifard F, Pourgholami MH, Jorjani M, et al. Estrogen as a key regulator of energy homeostasis and metabolic health. Biomed Pharmacother. 2022;156:113808.
53. Nakamura Y, Miki Y, Suzuki T, et al. Steroid sulfatase and estrogen sulfotransferase in the atherosclerotic human aorta. Am J Pathol. 2003;163:1329-39.
54. Johansson T, Karlsson T, Bliuc D, et al. Contemporary menopausal hormone therapy and risk of cardiovascular disease: swedish nationwide register based emulated target trial. BMJ. 2024;387:e078784.
55. Ceperuelo-Mallafré V, Llauradó G, Keiran N, et al. Preoperative circulating succinate levels as a biomarker for diabetes remission after bariatric surgery. Diabetes Care. 2019;42:1956-65.
56. Osuna-Prieto FJ, Martinez-Tellez B, Ortiz-Alvarez L, et al. Elevated plasma succinate levels are linked to higher cardiovascular disease risk factors in young adults. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2021;20:151.
57. de Metz J, Sprangers F, Endert E, et al. Interferon-γ has immunomodulatory effects with minor endocrine and metabolic effects in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1999;86:517-22.
58. Zorrilla EP, Conti B. Interleukin-18 null mutation increases weight and food intake and reduces energy expenditure and lipid substrate utilization in high-fat diet fed mice. Brain Behav Immun. 2014;37:45-53.
59. Zhou Y, Wei Y, Wang L, et al. Decreased adiponectin and increased inflammation expression in epicardial adipose tissue in coronary artery disease. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2011;10:2.
60. O'Brien LC, Graham ZA, Chen Q, Lesnefsky EJ, Cardozo C, Gorgey AS. Plasma adiponectin levels are correlated with body composition, metabolic profiles, and mitochondrial markers in individuals with chronic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord. 2018;56:863-72.
61. Adly NN, Abd-El-Gawad WM. Risk stratification among metabolically unhealthy obese in independent physically inactive aged women. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2019;13:1821-5.
62. Kizer JR, Benkeser D, Arnold AM, et al. Total and high-molecular-weight adiponectin and risk of coronary heart disease and ischemic stroke in older adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013;98:255-63.
63. Ouchi N, Kihara S, Arita Y, et al. Adipocyte-derived plasma protein, adiponectin, suppresses lipid accumulation and class A scavenger receptor expression in human monocyte-derived macrophages. Circulation. 2001;103:1057-63.
64. Zhou Q, Xiang H, Li A, et al. Activating adiponectin signaling with exogenous AdipoRon reduces myelin lipid accumulation and suppresses macrophage recruitment after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma. 2019;36:903-18.
65. Ehsan M, Singh KK, Lovren F, et al. Adiponectin limits monocytic microparticle-induced endothelial activation by modulation of the AMPK, Akt and NFκB signaling pathways. Atherosclerosis. 2016;245:1-11.
66. Okoth K, Chandan JS, Marshall T, et al. Association between the reproductive health of young women and cardiovascular disease in later life: umbrella review. BMJ. 2020;371:m3502.
67. Willemars MMA, Nabben M, Verdonschot JAJ, Hoes MF. Evaluation of the interaction of sex hormones and cardiovascular function and health. Curr Heart Fail Rep. 2022;19:200-12.
68. Ning L, He C, Lu C, Huang W, Zeng T, Su Q. Association between basal metabolic rate and cardio-metabolic risk factors: evidence from a Mendelian randomization study. Heliyon. 2024;10:e28154.
69. Howard BV, Rossouw JE. Estrogens and cardiovascular disease risk revisited: the Women’s Health Initiative. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2013;24:493-9.
70. Florian M, Lu Y, Angle M, Magder S. Estrogen induced changes in Akt-dependent activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase and vasodilation. Steroids. 2004;69:637-45.
71. Armistead B, Johnson E, VanderKamp R, et al. Placental regulation of energy homeostasis during human pregnancy. Endocrinology. 2020;161:bqaa076.
72. Rabadia SV, Heimberger S, Cameron NA, Shahandeh N. Pregnancy complications and long-term atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2025;27:27.
73. Xiang D, Liu Y, Zhou S, Zhou E, Wang Y. Protective effects of estrogen on cardiovascular disease mediated by oxidative stress. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2021;2021:5523516.
74. Lovejoy JC, Champagne CM, de Jonge L, Xie H, Smith SR. Increased visceral fat and decreased energy expenditure during the menopausal transition. Int J Obes. 2008;32:949-58.
75. El Khoudary SR, Aggarwal B, Beckie TM, et al.; American Heart Association Prevention Science Committee of the Council on Epidemiology and Prevention; and Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing. Menopause transition and cardiovascular disease risk: implications for timing of early prevention: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020;142:e506-32.
76. Reynolds HR, Bairey Merz CN, Berry C, et al. Coronary arterial function and disease in women with no obstructive coronary arteries. Circ Res. 2022;130:529-51.
77. Thurston RC, Chang Y, Barinas-Mitchell E, et al. Physiologically assessed hot flashes and endothelial function among midlife women. Menopause. 2018;25:1354-61.
78. Lam CSP, Voors AA, de Boer RA, Solomon SD, van Veldhuisen DJ. Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: from mechanisms to therapies. Eur Heart J. 2018;39:2780-92.
79. Samargandy S, Matthews KA, Brooks MM, et al. Arterial stiffness accelerates within 1 year of the final menstrual period: the SWAN heart study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2020;40:1001-8.
80. Fullmer S, Benson-Davies S, Earthman CP, et al. Evidence analysis library review of best practices for performing indirect calorimetry in healthy and non-critically ill individuals. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2015;115:1417-1446.e2.
81. Berger MM, De Waele E, Gramlich L, et al. How to interpret and apply the results of indirect calorimetry studies: a case-based tutorial. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2024;63:856-69.
83. Bendavid I, Lobo DN, Barazzoni R, et al. The centenary of the Harris-Benedict equations: how to assess energy requirements best? Recommendations from the ESPEN expert group. Clin Nutr. 2021;40:690-701.
84. Brandi LS, Bertolini R, Calafà M. Indirect calorimetry in critically ill patients: clinical applications and practical advice. Nutrition. 1997;13:349-58.
85. Ukleja A, Skroński MK, Szczygieł B, Cebulski W, Słodkowski M. Indirect calorimetry, indications, interpretation, and clinical application. Postępy Żywienia Klinicznego. 2023;18:22-8.
86. Haugen HA, Chan LN, Li F. Indirect calorimetry: a practical guide for clinicians. Nutr Clin Pract. 2007;22:377-88.
87. Mtaweh H, Tuira L, Floh AA, Parshuram CS. Indirect calorimetry: history, technology, and application. Front Pediatr. 2018;6:257.
88. Sabounchi NS, Rahmandad H, Ammerman A. Best-fitting prediction equations for basal metabolic rate: informing obesity interventions in diverse populations. Int J Obes. 2013;37:1364-70.
89. Teixeira PFDS, Dos Santos PB, Pazos-Moura CC. The role of thyroid hormone in metabolism and metabolic syndrome. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab. 2020;11:2042018820917869.
90. Mullur R, Liu YY, Brent GA. Thyroid hormone regulation of metabolism. Physiol Rev. 2014;94:355-82.
91. Li ZZ, Yu BZ, Wang JL, Yang Q, Ming J, Tang YR. Reference intervals for thyroid-stimulating hormone and thyroid hormones using the access TSH 3rd IS method in China. J Clin Lab Anal 2020;34:e23197.[PMID:31912542 DOI:10.1002/jcla.23197 PMCID:PMC7246370] Caution!.
92. Flammer AJ, Anderson T, Celermajer DS, et al. The assessment of endothelial function: from research into clinical practice. Circulation. 2012;126:753-67.
93. Bonetti PO, Pumper GM, Higano ST, Holmes DR Jr, Kuvin JT, Lerman A. Noninvasive identification of patients with early coronary atherosclerosis by assessment of digital reactive hyperemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44:2137-41.
94. Murthy VL, Reis JP, Pico AR, et al. Comprehensive metabolic phenotyping refines cardiovascular risk in young adults. Circulation. 2020;142:2110-27.
95. Riggs AJ, White BD, Gropper SS. Changes in energy expenditure associated with ingestion of high protein, high fat versus high protein, low fat meals among underweight, normal weight, and overweight females. Nutr J. 2007;6:40.
96. Dickerson RN, Roth-Yousey L. Medication effects on metabolic rate: a systematic review (part 1). J Am Diet Assoc. 2005;105:835-43.
97. Dickerson RN, Roth-Yousey L. Medication effects on metabolic rate: a systematic review (part 2). J Am Diet Assoc. 2005;105:1002-9.
98. Swedenborg E, Power KA, Cai W, Pongratz I, Rüegg J. Regulation of estrogen receptor beta activity and implications in health and disease. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2009;66:3873-94.
99. Barros RP, Gustafsson JÅ. Estrogen receptors and the metabolic network. Cell Metab. 2011;14:289-99.
100. Zahr T, Boda VK, Ge J, et al. Small molecule conjugates with selective estrogen receptor β agonism promote anti-aging benefits in metabolism and skin recovery. Acta Pharm Sin B. 2024;14:2137-52.
101. Foryst-Ludwig A, Kintscher U. Metabolic impact of estrogen signalling through ERalpha and ERbeta. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2010;122:74-81.
102. Bi X, Forde CG, Goh AT, Henry CJ. Basal metabolic rate and body composition predict habitual food and macronutrient intakes: gender differences. Nutrients. 2019;11:2653.
103. Guasch-Ferré M, Wittenbecher C, Palmnäs M, et al. Precision nutrition for cardiometabolic diseases. Nat Med. 2025;31:1444-53.
104. Mitchell L, Wilson L, Duthie G, et al. Methods to assess energy expenditure of resistance exercise: a systematic scoping review. Sports Med. 2024;54:2357-72.
105. Wang X, Mao D, Xu Z, et al. Predictive equation for basal metabolic rate in normal-weight chinese adults. Nutrients. 2023;15:4185.
106. Wang Z, Bosy-Westphal A, Schautz B, Müller M. Mechanistic model of mass-specific basal metabolic rate: evaluation in healthy young adults. Int J Body Compos Res. 2011;9:147.
107. Arciero PJ, Edmonds R, He F, et al. Protein-pacing caloric-restriction enhances body composition similarly in obese men and women during weight loss and sustains efficacy during long-term weight maintenance. Nutrients. 2016;8:476.
108. Syngle V. Determinants of basal metabolic rate in Indian obese patients. Obesity Medicine. 2020;17:100175.
109. Huang HYR, Vitali C, Zhang D, et al. Deep metabolic phenotyping of humans with protein-altering variants in TM6SF2 using a genome-first approach. JHEP Rep. 2025;7:101243.
111. Long CP, Antoniewicz MR. High-resolution 13C metabolic flux analysis. Nat Protoc. 2019;14:2856-77.
112. Cheah YE, Young JD. Isotopically nonstationary metabolic flux analysis (INST-MFA): putting theory into practice. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2018;54:80-7.
113. Magrini ML, Minto C, Lazzarini F, Martinato M, Gregori D. Wearable devices for caloric intake assessment: state of art and future developments. Open Nurs J. 2017;11:232-40.
