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Figure 2. Overcoming stem cell limitations: engineering strategies for enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Stem cell-based therapies for atherosclerosis face intrinsic limitations, including heterogeneity, tumorigenic potential, short in vivo retention, and difficulties in long-term storage. Targeted engineering strategies are correspondingly proposed to overcome these barriers, such as enhancing immunomodulatory functions via PD-L1 overexpression, promoting cholesterol efflux through membrane engineering, and improving stability and targeting precision by employing an artificial nanocarrier. This conceptual framework provides a visualized correlation between key limitations and rational engineering solutions, offering guidance for the development of next-generation stem cell therapeutics in atherosclerosis. Created in BioRender. Yang Z (2025) https://BioRender.com/whkit3r. MSC: Mesenchymal stem cell; PLGA: poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid); T_reg: regulatory T cell; PD-L1: programmed death ligand 1; IL-10: interleukin-10; Akt (PKB): protein kinase B.