fig2

Figure 2. Timing of biomarker detection in ischemic stroke. The time course of biomarker detection is shown following the onset of ischemic stroke: immediate (0-3 h), early (3-24 h), subacute (1-7 days), and late (more than one week)^{[23,61,6875,76,81,111,120,121]}. The rapid appearance of reactive oxygen species and IL-6 characterizes early inflammatory and oxidative stress reactions^{[4,82,94,111]}. In 0-24 h, GFAP, microRNAs (e.g., miR-124), and D-dimer are measurable^{[14,15,61,63,68,72]}. GFAP and D-dimer can aid in subtype differentiation of stroke^{[14,15,61,63]}. Subacute phase biomarkers, such as CRP, sNfL, and MMPs, indicate ongoing neuroinflammation, tissue damage, and axonal injury^{[23,66,81,94,113]}. During the subacute and late phases, tau protein correlates with neuronal damage and long-term prognosis^[75,76,94]. Separately, baseline GDF-15 predicts future stroke events and mortality^[80].