REFERENCES
1. Roth GA, Mensah GA, Johnson CO, et al. Global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risk factors, 1990-2019. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76:2982-3021.
2. Yang L, Zang G, Li J, Li X, Li Y, Zhao Y. Cell-derived biomimetic nanoparticles as a novel drug delivery system for atherosclerosis: predecessors and perspectives. Regen Biomater. 2020;7:349-58.
3. Yang F, Xue J, Wang G, Diao Q. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Front Pharmacol. 2022;13:999404.
4. Kogularasu S, Lin W, Lee Y, et al. Advancements in electrochemical biosensing of cardiovascular disease biomarkers. J Mater Chem. B. 2024;12:6305-27.
5. Yousefi F, Movahedpour A, Shabaninejad Z, et al. Electrochemical-based biosensors: new diagnosis platforms for cardiovascular disease. Curr Med Chem. 2020;27:2550-75.
6. Bryan T, Luo X, Bueno PR, Davis JJ. An optimised electrochemical biosensor for the label-free detection of C-reactive protein in blood. Biosens Bioelectron. 2013;39:94-8.
7. Diao W, Zhou C, Zhang Z, et al. EGaIn-modified ePADs for simultaneous detection of homocysteine and C-reactive protein in saliva toward early diagnosis of cardiovascular disease. ACS Sens. 2024;9:4265-76.
8. Li C, Hsu SH, Chang C, Wang G. Direct bilirubin detection using surface-enhanced raman spectroscopy. IEEE Sensors J. 2021;21:21458-64.
9. Wang K, Wang S, Lin L, Zhao Z, Li G. Detection of total bilirubin based on multi-wavelength excitation fluorescence spectroscopy. Measurement. 2025;253:117807.
10. Oshima Y, Haruki T, Koizumi K, et al. Practices, potential, and perspectives for detecting predisease using raman spectroscopy. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:12170.
11. Delrue C, Speeckaert MM. The potential applications of raman spectroscopy in kidney diseases. J Pers Med. 2022;12:1644.
12. Yao B, Giel M, Hong Y. Detection of kidney disease biomarkers based on fluorescence technology. Mater. Chem Front. 2021;5:2124-42.
13. Huillet C, Adrait A, Lebert D, et al. Accurate quantification of cardiovascular biomarkers in serum using protein standard absolute quantification (PSAQTM) and selected reaction monitoring. Mol Cell Proteomics. 2012;11:M111.008235.
14. Osorio LA, Lozano M, Soto P, et al. Levels of small extracellular vesicles containing hERG-1 and Hsp47 as potential biomarkers for cardiovascular diseases. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25:4913.
15. Längst N, Adler J, Kuret A, et al. Cysteine-rich LIM-Only protein 4 (CRP4) promotes atherogenesis in the ApoE-/- mouse model. Cells. 2022;11:1364.
16. Greco A, Occhipinti G, Giacoppo D, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for primary and secondary prevention of ischemic stroke. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2023;82:1538-57.
17. Poznyak AV, Sukhorukov VN, Eremin II, Nadelyaeva II, Orekhov AN. Diagnostics of atherosclerosis: overview of the existing methods. Front. Cardiovasc. Med. 2023;10:1134097.
18. Debnath S, Paramasivam SS, Pradhan D, Manickam P, Chatterjee PB. A redox‐active copper complex for orthogonal detection of homocysteine involving fluorescence and electrochemical techniques. Small. 2025;21:2409982.
19. Stewart AJ, O’reilly EJ, Moriarty RD, et al. A cholesterol biosensor based on the NIR electrogenerated-chemiluminescence (ECL) of water-soluble CdSeTe/ZnS quantum dots. Electrochim Acta. 2015;157:8-14.
20. Özçelikay-akyıldız G, Ünal MA, Atakan Ş, et al. Ultrasensitive electrochemical immunosensor system for determination of autologous SOX2 antibody. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2024;241:115992.
21. Alsefri S, Balbaied T, Moore E. Electrochemical development of an immunosensor for detection polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) for environmental analysis. Chemosensors. 2021;9:307.
22. Filik H, Avan AA. Nanostructures for nonlabeled and labeled electrochemical immunosensors: Simultaneous electrochemical detection of cancer markers: a review. Talanta. 2019;205:120153.
23. Sun J, Tian D, Guo Q, Zhang L, Jiang W, Yang M. A label-free electrochemical immunosensor for the detection of cancer biomarker α-fetoprotein (AFP) based on hydroxyapatite induced redox current. Anal Methods. 2016;8:7319-23.
24. De Castro ACH, Alves LM, Siquieroli ACS, Madurro JM, Brito-madurro AG. Label-free electrochemical immunosensor for detection of oncomarker CA125 in serum. Microchem J. 2020;155:104746.
25. Regiart M, Gimenez AM, Lopes AT, Carreño MN, Bertotti M. Ultrasensitive microfluidic electrochemical immunosensor based on electrodeposited nanoporous gold for SOX-2 determination. Anal Chim Acta. 2020;1127:122-30.
26. Lah ZMANH, Ahmad SAA, Zaini MS, Kamarudin MA. An electrochemical sandwich immunosensor for the detection of HER2 using antibody-conjugated PbS quantum dot as a label. J Pharm Biomed Anal. 2019;174:608-17.
27. Liu Y, He G, Liu H, et al. Electrochemical immunosensor based on AuBP@Pt nanostructure and AuPd-PDA nanozyme for ultrasensitive detection of APOE4. RSC Adv. 2020;10:7912-7.
28. Pollap A, Kochana J. Electrochemical immunosensors for antibiotic detection. Biosensors. 2019;9:61.
29. Zhang B, Li H, Li W, et al. Gold/vertical-graphene-based dual-channel electrochemical immunosensor for point-of-care testing of tetanus toxin in blood. Biosens Bioelectron. 2026;302:118521.
30. Robinson C, Juska VB, O’riordan A. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) based label-free immunosensors. ChemRxiv 2022.
31. Rahn KL, Peramune U, Zhang T, Anand RK. Label-free electrochemical methods for disease detection. Annu Rev Anal Chem. 2023;16:49-69.
32. Mradula, Kumar P, Raj R, Mishra S. Development of a label-free electrochemical immunosensor for thyroxine detection with CdS@MOF-5 nanocomposite. Microchem J. 2025;216:114656.
33. Junlapak N, Khumngern S, Nontipichet N, et al. A label-free electrochemical immunosensor for bladder tumor marker NMP22 using AuNPs@OMC and Thi@Gr-COOH nanocomposites. Bioelectrochemistry. 2026;167:109074.
34. Guillem P, Bustos R, Garzon V, Munoz A, Juez G. A low-cost electrochemical biosensor platform for C-reactive protein detection. Sens Bio Sens Res. 2021;31:100402.
35. Police Patil AV, Chuang Y, Li C, Wu C. Recent advances in electrochemical immunosensors with nanomaterial assistance for signal amplification. Biosensors. 2023;13:125.
36. Guo L, Zhao Y, Huang Q, et al. Electrochemical protein biosensors for disease marker detection: progress and opportunities. Microsyst Nanoeng. 2024;10:65.
37. Cancelliere R, Paialunga E, Grattagliano A, Micheli L. Label-free electrochemical immunosensors: a practical guide. Trends Anal Chem. 2024;180:117949.
38. Oliveira MD, Abdalla DS, Guilherme DF, Faulin TE, Andrade CA. Impedimetric immunosensor for electronegative low density lipoprotein (LDL-) based on monoclonal antibody adsorbed on (polyvinyl formal)-gold nanoparticles matrix. Sens Actuators B Chem. 2011;155:775-81.
39. Wang H, Wang M, Chi H, et al. Sandwich-type photoelectrochemical immunosensor for procalcitonin detection based on Mn2+ doped CdS sensitized Bi2WO6 and signal amplification of NaYF4:Yb, Tm upconversion nanomaterial. Anal Chim Acta. 2021;1188:339190.
40. Li X, Han D, Li X, et al. PdPtCu mesoporous nanocube-based electrochemical sandwich immunosensor for detection of HIV-p24. Bioelectrochemistry. 2025;161:108819.
41. Martins TS, Bott-neto JL, Oliveira ON, Machado SAS. A sandwich-type electrochemical immunosensor based on Au-rGO composite for CA15-3 tumor marker detection. Microchim Acta. 2021;189:38.
42. Awan M, Rauf S, Abbas A, et al. A sandwich electrochemical immunosensor based on antibody functionalized-silver nanoparticles (Ab-Ag NPs) for the detection of dengue biomarker protein NS1. J Mol Liq. 2020;317:114014.
43. Song D, Zheng J, Myung NV, Xu J, Zhang M. Sandwich-type electrochemical immunosensor for CEA detection using magnetic hollow Ni/C@SiO2 nanomatrix and boronic acid functionalized CPS@PANI@Au probe. Talanta. 2021;225:122006.
44. Bułdak Ł. Cardiovascular diseases-a focus on atherosclerosis, its prophylaxis, complications and recent advancements in therapies. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:4695.
46. Zhu Y, Xian X, Wang Z, et al. Research progress on the relationship between atherosclerosis and inflammation. Biomolecules. 2018;8:80.
48. Roger VL, Sidney S, Fairchild AL, et al. ; On behalf of the American Heart Association Advocacy Coordinating Committee. Recommendations for cardiovascular health and disease surveillance for 2030 and beyond: a policy statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020;141:e104-19.
49. Yu X, Zhang D, Zheng X, Tang C. Cholesterol transport system: an integrated cholesterol transport model involved in atherosclerosis. Prog Lipid Res. 2019;73:65-91.
50. Pirillo A, Norata GD, Catapano AL. LOX-1, OxLDL, and atherosclerosis. Mediators Inflamm. 2013;2013:152786.
52. Song X, Zhang J, Li S. Recent advances in biomarkers for cardiovascular diseases and biosensing precisely via modification method of electrochemical biosensor: a review. Electrochem Commun. 2025;178:107968.
53. Tyrrell DJ, Goldstein DR. Ageing and atherosclerosis: vascular intrinsic and extrinsic factors and potential role of IL-6. Nat Rev Cardiol. 2020;18:58-68.
55. Khatana C, Saini NK, Chakrabarti S, et al. Mechanistic Insights into the oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced atherosclerosis. Oxid Med Cell Longev. 2020;2020:5245308.
56. Luo R, Li J, Huang G, Li G, Guo S, Yuan Y. Electrochemical biosensor for the detection of low density lipoprotein based on gold nanoparticles mediated bi-enzymes catalytic silver deposition reaction. Microchem J. 2024;199:109927.
57. Rudewicz-kowalczyk D, Grabowska I. Antibody-ferrocene conjugates as a platform for electro-chemical detection of low-density lipoprotein. Molecules. 2022;27:5492.
58. Kaur G, Tomar M, Gupta V. Realization of a label-free electrochemical immunosensor for detection of low density lipoprotein using NiO thin film. Biosens Bioelectron. 2016;80:294-9.
59. Yan W, Chen X, Li X, Feng X, Zhu J. Fabrication of a label-free electrochemical immunosensor of low-density lipoprotein. J. Phys. Chem. B. 2008;112:1275-81.
60. Rudewicz-kowalczyk D, Grabowska I. Detection of low density lipoprotein-comparison of electrochemical immuno- and aptasensor. Sensors. 2021;21:7733.
61. Cabral-miranda G, Yamashiro-kanashiro EHG, Gidlund M, Sales MGF. Specific label-free and real-time detection of oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL) using an immunosensor with three monoclonal antibodies. J Mater Chem B. 2014;2:477-84.
62. Rudewicz-kowalczyk D, Grabowska I. Simultaneous electrochemical detection of LDL and MDA-LDL using antibody-ferrocene or anthraquinone conjugates coated magnetic beads. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24:6005.
63. Assaifan AK, Alqahtani FA, Alnamlah S, Almutairi R, Alkhammash HI. Detection and real-time monitoring of LDL-cholesterol by redox-free impedimetric biosensors. BioChip J. 2022;16:197-206.
64. Egito EMND, Frias IAM, Oliveira MDL, Andrade CASD. Electrochemical immunosensing of low-density lipoprotein based on sol-gel encapsulation. Braz J Pharm Sci. 2023;59:e22430.
65. Badimon L, Peña E, Arderiu G, et al. C-reactive protein in atherothrombosis and angiogenesis. Front Immunol. 2018;9:430.
66. Singh SK, Suresh MV, Voleti B, Agrawal A. The connection between C‐reactive protein and atherosclerosis. Ann Med. 2009;40:110-20.
67. Calabrò P, Golia E, Yeh ETH. CRP and the risk of atherosclerotic events. Semin Immunopathol. 2009;31:79-94.
68. Lu T, Lin Y, Xiao W, et al. Reagent-free anti-fouling electrochemical immunosensor based on AL-BSA/AuNPs/PANI coating for the point-of-care detection of C-reactive protein in plasma and whole blood. Biosens Bioelectron. 2024;264:116667.
69. Ma N, Luo X, Wu W, Liu J. Fabrication of a disposable electrochemical immunosensor based on nanochannel array modified electrodes and gated electrochemical signals for sensitive determination of C-reactive protein. Nanomaterials. 2022;12:3981.
70. Zambry NS, Prathaban SN, Ibrahim F, et al. A label-free electrochemical immunosensor on gold-printed electrode for the electrochemical detection of C-reactive protein from blood samples. Microchim Acta. 2025;192:437.
71. Ribeiro SHD, Alves LM, Flauzino JMR, et al. Reusable immunosensor for detection of C‐reactive protein in human serum. Electroanalysis. 2020;32:2316-22.
72. Ozoemena OC, Boateng E, Chen A. Ultrasensitive electrochemical immunosensor for the detection of C-reactive protein antigen. Analyst. 2024;149:3773-82.
73. Amoresi RAC, Roza NAV, Mazon T. Applying CeO2 nanorods in flexible electrochemical immunosensor to detect C-reactive protein. J Electroanal Chem. 2023;935:117353.
74. Liu T, Hu R, Liu Y, Zhang K, Bai R, Yang Y. Amperometric immunosensor based on covalent organic frameworks and Pt/Ru/C nanoparticles for the quantification of C-reactive protein. Microchim Acta. 2020;187:320.
75. Feng Y, He J, Jiang L, Chen D, Wang A, Feng J. Novel sandwich-typed electrochemical immunosensing of C-reactive protein using multiply twinned AuPtRh nanobead chains and nitrogen-rich porous carbon nanospheres decorated with Au nanoparticles. Sens Actuators B Chem. 2022;358:131518.
76. Ma Y, Yang J, Yang T, et al. Electrochemical detection of C-reactive protein using functionalized iridium nanoparticles/graphene oxide as a tag. RSC Adv. 2020;10:9723-9.
77. Torati SR, Slaughter G. Advanced laser-induced graphene-based electrochemical immunosensor for the detection of C-reactive protein. Bioelectrochemistry. 2025;161:108842.
78. Du J, Ma Y, Wang Y. An electrochemical immunosensor based on a graphene/multi-wall carbon nanotube composite platform for the detection of cardiovascular marker C-reactive protein. Carbon Lett. 2023;34:519-28.
79. Li M, Xia X, Meng S, et al. An electrochemical immunosensor coupling a bamboo-like carbon nanostructure substrate with toluidine blue-functionalized Cu(ii)-MOFs as signal probes for a C-reactive protein assay. RSC Adv. 2021;11:6699-708.
80. Papastamos C, Antonopoulos AS, Simantiris S, et al. Interleukin-6 signaling in atherosclerosis: from molecular mechanisms to clinical outcomes. Curr Top Med Chem. 2023;23:2172-83.
81. Hartman J, Frishman WH. Inflammation and atherosclerosis: a review of the role of interleukin-6 in the development of atherosclerosis and the potential for targeted drug therapy. Cardiol Rev. 2014;22:147-51.
82. Cancelliere R, Di Tinno A, Di Lellis AM, Contini G, Micheli L, Signori E. Cost-effective and disposable label-free voltammetric immunosensor for sensitive detection of interleukin-6. Biosens Bioelectron. 2022;213:114467.
83. Tan PS, Vaughan E, Islam J, Burke N, Iacopino D, Tierney JB. Laser scribing fabrication of graphitic carbon biosensors for label-free detection of interleukin-6. Nanomaterials. 2021;11:2110.
84. Zhang C, Shi D, Li X, Yuan J. Microfluidic electrochemical magnetoimmunosensor for ultrasensitive detection of interleukin-6 based on hybrid of AuNPs and graphene. Talanta. 2022;240:123173.
85. Wang Z, Yang S, Wang Y, et al. A novel oriented immunosensor based on AuNPs-thionine-CMWCNTs and staphylococcal protein a for interleukin-6 analysis in complicated biological samples. Anal Chim Acta. 2020;1140:145-52.
86. Tertiş M, Melinte G, Ciui B, et al. A novel label free electrochemical magnetoimmunosensor for human interleukin‐6 quantification in serum. Electroanalysis. 2018;31:282-92.
87. Tertis M, Leva PI, Bogdan D, Suciu M, Graur F, Cristea C. Impedimetric aptasensor for the label-free and selective detection of Interleukin-6 for colorectal cancer screening. Biosens Bioelectron. 2019;137:123-32.
88. Chen Z, He W, Lin R, Wu D, Jiang X, Cheng Y. Prussian blue-doped CaCO3 nanoparticle-labeled secondary antibodies for electrochemical immunoassay of interleukin-6 with migraine patients. Analyst. 2025;150:94-102.
89. Liu L, Sheng X, Xue Y, et al. Ultrasensitive electrochemical immunosensor for multiplex sandwich bioassaying based on the functional antibodies. ACS Omega. 2024;9:14249-54.
90. Rani S, Bandyopadhyay-ghosh S, Ghosh SB. Personalized assessment and monitoring of bone health from sweat: unveiling TEGO doped wearable, non-invasive hydrogel nanocomposite biosensor empowered by IL-6 detection. Biomed Mater. 2025;20:035010.
91. Shen Z, Huang J, Wei H, et al. Validation of an in vivo electrochemical immunosensing platform for simultaneous detection of multiple cytokines in Parkinson’s disease mice model. Bioelectrochemistry. 2020;134:107532.
92. Zhu C, Zhao Y, Liu J. Sensitive Detection of biomarker in gingival crevicular fluid based on enhanced electrochemiluminescence by nanochannel-confined Co3O4 nanocatalyst. Biosensors. 2025;15:63.
93. Sung S, Choi M, Kim J, Nam U, Kim S, Lee J. Effect of nanoarray density on enhanced electron transfer efficiency and analytical sensitivity for electrochemical immunosensors. Talanta. 2024;279:126637.
94. Li T, Kosgei BK, Soko GF, et al. An immunosensor for the near real-time and site of inflammation detections of multiple proinflammatory cytokines. Biosens Bioelectron. 2024;263:116618.
95. Lv Y, Deng M, Wang X, et al. In-situ formation of “electron conductive wires” threaded ZIF-8 membrane for multiplexed immunoassay of human interleukins. Nano Res. 2022;16:2866-74.
96. Cao L, Cai J, Deng W, Tan Y, Xie Q. NiCoO2@CeO2 nanoboxes for ultrasensitive electrochemical immunosensing based on the oxygen evolution reaction in a neutral medium: application for interleukin-6 detection. Anal Chem. 2020;92:16267-73.
97. Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, et al. ; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2018;39:3021-104.
98. Joint Committee for Guideline Revision. 2018 Chinese guidelines for prevention and treatment of hypertension-a report of the revision committee of Chinese guidelines for prevention and treatment of hypertension. J Geriatr Cardiol. 2019;16:182-241.
99. Deng Y, Huang C, Su J, Pan C, Ke C. Identification of biomarkers for essential hypertension based on metabolomics. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2021;31:382-95.
100. Wang J, Qian J, Wang Y, et al. Serological biomarkers as risk factors of SLE-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lupus. 2017;26:1390-400.
101. Takeda Y, Demura M, Yoneda T, Takeda Y. Epigenetic regulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in hypertension. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25:8099.
102. Ames MK, Atkins CE, Pitt B. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and its suppression. J Vet Intern Med. 2019;33:363-82.
103. Patel S, Rauf A, Khan H, Abu-izneid T. Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAAS): the ubiquitous system for homeostasis and pathologies. Biomed Pharmacother. 2017;94:317-25.
104. Schuck A, Kim HE, Kang M, Kim Y. Gold nanostar-modified electrochemical sensor for highly sensitive renin quantification as a marker of tissue-perfusion. MRS Communications. 2023;13:1150-5.
105. Dong Q, Lei L, Wang H, Kannan P, Zhou Q, Ji S. Manganese nanoparticles catalyzed the formation of mesoporous helical nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes enabled aldosterone biosensing. Chem Eng J. 2024;500:156700.
106. Hanukoglu I, Hanukoglu A. Epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) family: phylogeny, structure-function, tissue distribution, and associated inherited diseases. Gene. 2016;579:95-132.
107. Loffing J, Schild L. Functional domains of the epithelial sodium channel. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16:3175-81.
108. Jones E, Rayner B. The importance of the epithelial sodium channel in determining salt sensitivity in people of African origin. Pediatr Nephrol. 2020;36:237-43.
109. Setiyono R, Zein MIH, Daud P, Anggraeni A, Hartati YW, Bahti HH. A novel in-house built printed circuit board-ceria based electrochemical device for rapid detection of Epithelial Sodium Channel (ENaC), a hypertension biomarker. Sens Actuators Rep. 2024;7:100200.
110. Hartati YW, Yusup SF, Wyantuti FS, Sofiatin Y, Gaffar S. A voltammetric epithelial sodium channels immunosensor using screen printed carbon electrode modified with reduced graphene oxide. Curr Chem Lett. 2020:151-60.
111. Schuck A, Kang M, Kim Y. Electrochemical detection of biomarkers via affinity binding with functionalized nanocomposite for assessment of tissue-perfusion. J Electr Eng Technol. 2024;19:3309-16.
112. Hartati Y, Satriana N, Gaffar S, Mulyana J, Wyantuti S, Sofiatin Y. Electrochemical label-free immunosensor for the detection of epithelial sodium channels using gold modified screen-printed carbon electrode. In: Widiana A, Wulan ER, Hidayat C, Fuadi RS, Rahim R, Editors. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Islam, Science and Technology, ICONISTECH 2019; 2019 July 11-12; Bandung, Indonesia. Available from: https://eudl.eu/doi/10.4108/eai.11-7-2019.2298070. [Last accessed on 25 May 2026].
113. Hartati YW, Gaffar S, Alfiani D, Pratomo U, Sofiatin Y, Subroto T. A voltammetric immunosensor based on gold nanoparticle - Anti-ENaC bioconjugate for the detection of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) protein as a biomarker of hypertension. Sens Bio Sens Res. 2020;29:100343.
114. Hanifa Lestari TF, Setiyono R, Tristina N, Sofiatin Y, Hartati YW. The optimization of electrochemical immunosensors to detect epithelial sodium channel as a biomarker of hypertension. ADMET DMPK. 2023;11:211-26.
115. Thygesen K, Alpert JS, Jaffe AS, et al. ; The Executive Group on behalf of the Joint European Society of Cardiology (ESC)/American College of Cardiology (ACC)/American Heart Association (AHA)/World Heart Federation (WHF) Task Force for the Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction. Fourth universal definition of myocardial infarction (2018). Circulation. 2018;138:e618-51.
117. Yufera-sanchez A, Lopez-ayala P, Nestelberger T, et al. ; The APACE Investigators. Combining glucose and high-sensitivity cardiac troponin in the early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. Sci Rep. 2023;13:14598.
118. Arifulin EA, Sheval EV. Non-canonical localization of cardiac troponins: expanding functions or causing pathologies? Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25:3117.
119. Collet J, Thiele H, Barbato E, et al. ; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2020 ESC guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation. Eur Heart J. 2021;42:1289-367.
120. Liu X, Yang H, Ni J, et al. Copper(II)-tannic acid@Cu with in situ grown gold nanoparticles as a bifunctional matrix for facile construction of label-free and ultrasensitive electrochemical cTnI immunosensor. ACS Appl. Bio Mater. 2024;7:5258-67.
121. Yengin C, Der FG, Alcin I, Cihan B, Kilinc E. Non-invasive electrochemical immunosensor for reverse iontophoretic determination of cardiac troponins (cTnT & cTnI) in a simulated artificial skin model. Significance of raw DPV and CV data for chemometric discrimination. Talanta. 2023;256:124276.
122. Spain E, Carrara S, Adamson K, et al. Cardiac troponin I: ultrasensitive detection using faradaic electrochemical impedance. ACS Omega. 2018;3:17116-24.
123. Meng Y, Li Y, Liu S, et al. Sandwich-type electrochemical immunosensor based on CuFe2O4-Pd for cardiac troponin I detection. Microchim Acta. 2023;190:249.
124. Liu F, Gao Y, Guo Y, Li J, Huo W, Dai W. A sandwich-type electrochemical immunosensor for cardiac troponin I based on β-cyclodextrin functionalized 3D graphene incorporated with Ag nanoclusters. Electrochem Commun. 2025;177:107978.
125. Wang B, Wang C, Li Y, Liu X, Wu D, Wei Q. Electrochemiluminescence biosensor for cardiac troponin I with signal amplification based on a MoS2@Cu2O-Ag-modified electrode and Ce:ZnO-NGQDs. Analyst. 2022;147:4768-76.
126. Feng S, Yan M, Xue Y, Huang J, Yang X. Electrochemical immunosensor for cardiac troponin I detection based on covalent organic framework and enzyme-catalyzed signal amplification. Anal Chem. 2021;93:13572-9.
127. Brussasco JG, Guedes PHG, Moço ACR, et al. Electro‐immunosensor for ultra‐sensitive determination of cardiac troponin I based on reduced graphene oxide and polytyramine. J Mol Recognit. 2022;36:e2995.
128. Li M, Wu Y, Ke C, et al. An ultrasensitive unlabeled electrochemical immunosensor for the detection of cardiac troponin I based on Pt/Au-B,S,N-rGO as the signal amplification platform. Talanta. 2024;270:125546.
129. Jiang F, Meng Y, Mo M, et al. A sensitive electrochemical immunosensor based on high-efficiency catalytic cycle amplification strategy for detection of cardiac troponin I. Bioelectrochemistry. 2024;159:108730.
130. Kim SE, Yoon JC, Muthurasu A, Kim HY. Functionalized triangular carbon quantum dot stabilized gold nanoparticles decorated boron nitride nanosheets interfaced for electrochemical detection of cardiac troponin T. Langmuir. 2024;40:25051-60.
131. Noor Azam NF, Mohammad NA, Lim SA, Ahmed MU. A label-free cardiac troponin T electrochemiluminescence immunosensor enhanced by graphene nanoplatelets. Anal Sci. 2019;35:973-8.
132. Supraja P, Sudarshan V, Tripathy S, Agrawal A, Singh SG. Label free electrochemical detection of cardiac biomarker troponin T using ZnSnO3 perovskite nanomaterials. Anal Methods. 2019;11:744-51.
133. Faria AM, Amoresi RAC, Bach-toledo L, Andrés J, Mazon T. Surface modification of biochar to prepare environmentally friendly electrochemical biosensors for detection of cardiac troponin T. ACS Omega. 2025;10:25842-54.
134. Demirbakan B, Kemal Sezgintürk M. A novel ultrasensitive immunosensor based on disposable graphite paper electrodes for troponin T detection in cardiovascular disease. Talanta. 2020;213:120779.
135. Landim VPA, Foguel MV, Prado CM, et al. A polypyrrole/nanoclay hybrid film for ultra-sensitive cardiac troponin T electrochemical immunosensor. Biosensors. 2022;12:545.
136. Li Q, Liu H, Jiang S, et al. The effects of high pressure treatment on the structural and digestive properties of myoglobin. Food Res Int. 2022;156:111193.
137. Grenadier E, Keidar S, Kahana L, Alpan G, Marmur A, Palant A. The roles of serum myoglobin, total CPK, and CK-MB isoenzyme in the acute phase of myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 1983;105:408-16.
138. Al-Hadi HA, Fox KA. Cardiac markers in the early diagnosis and management of patients with acute coronary syndrome. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J. 2009;9:231-46.
139. Zhang J, Tang C, Chen D, Jiang L, Wang A, Feng J. Ultrasensitive label-free sandwich immunoassay of cardiac biomarker myoglobin using meso-SiO2@ploydapamine@PtPd nanocrystals and PtNi nanodendrites for effective signal amplification. Appl Surf Sci. 2023;608:155216.
140. Yang Q, Chen W, Shi J, et al. Highly sensitive and label-free electrochemical detection of cardiac myoglobin using an Au/Co-BDC@MD-based Immunosensor. Microchem J. 2025;217:114831.
141. Li X, Rouhi O. Electrochemical sensor based on antibody modified of MnO2@CNTs/GCE for cardiac myoglobin detection in human blood serum as a sensitive marker of muscle damage. Int J Electrochem Sci. 2022;17:221041.
142. Tang C, Wang A, Feng J, Cheang TY. Mulberry-like porous-hollow AuPtAg nanorods for electrochemical immunosensing of biomarker myoglobin. Microchim Acta. 2023;190:233.
143. Rabbani G, Ahmad E, Khan ME, et al. Synthesis of carbon nanotubes-chitosan nanocomposite and immunosensor fabrication for myoglobin detection: an acute myocardial infarction biomarker. Int J Biol Macromol. 2024;265:130616.
144. Lima FMR, De Menezes AS, Maciel AP, et al. Zero-biased photoelectrochemical detection of cardiac biomarker myoglobin based on CdSeS/ZnS quantum dots and barium titanate perovskite. Molecules. 2022;27:4778.
145. Liu Y, Sun B, Wu Y, et al. Fabricating electrochemical immunosensor based on magnetic multi-walled carbon nanotubes for rapid detection of early warning marker of acute myocardial infarction-Mb. Microchem J. 2025;215:114449.
146. Chen C, Ma J, Wang H, et al. A spatially resolved ratiometric electrochemiluminescence immunosensor for myoglobin detection using Au@Ag2S as signal amplification tags. New J Chem. 2022;46:17331-7.
147. Robinson DJ, Christenson RH. Creatine kinase and its CK-MB isoenzyme: the conventional marker for the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. J Emerg Med. 1999;17:95-104.
148. Ammirati E, Dobrev D. Conventional Troponin-I versus high-sensitivity troponin-T: performance and incremental prognostic value in non-ST-elevation acute myocardial infarction patients with negative CK-MB based on a real-world multicenter cohort. Int J Cardiol Heart Vasc. 2018;20:38-9.
149. Wang X, Chen Y, Mei L, Wang A, Yuan P, Feng J. Confining signal probe in porous PdPtCoNi@Pt-skin nanopolyhedra to construct a sandwich-type electrochemical immmunosensor for ultrasensitive detection of creatine kinase-MB. Sens Actuators B Chem. 2020;315:128088.
150. Cen S, Feng Y, Zhu J, et al. Eco-friendly one-pot aqueous synthesis of ultra-thin AuPdCu alloyed nanowire-like networks for highly sensitive immunoassay of creatine kinase-MB. Sens Actuators B Chem. 2021;333:129573.
151. Zhong T, Jiang Z, Xing Y, Jiang S, Wu Y, Yao S. Electrochemical immunosensor based on gold nanoparticles for the detection of creatine kinase as a cardiac marker. Int J Electrochem Sci. 2024;19:100821.
152. Demirbakan B. A highly sensitive creatine kinase detection in human serum using 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid modified ITO-PET electrodes. Anal Biochem. 2025;700:115768.
153. Adhikari J, Keasberry NA, Mahadi AH, Yoshikawa H, Tamiya E, Ahmed MU. An ultra-sensitive label-free electrochemiluminescence CKMB immunosensor using a novel nanocomposite-modified printed electrode. RSC Adv. 2019;9:34283-92.
154. Demirbakan B, Sezgintürk MK. An electrochemical immunosensor based on graphite paper electrodes for the sensitive detection of creatine kinase in actual samples. J Electroanal Chem. 2022;921:116656.
155. Van Der Vusse GJ, Glatz JF, Stam HC, Reneman RS. Fatty acid homeostasis in the normoxic and ischemic heart. Physiol Rev. 1992;72:881-940.
156. Pavel A, Kundnani NR, Morariu S, et al. Importance of H-FABP in early diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. Int J Gen Med. 2024;17:4335-46.
157. Ye X, He Y, Wang S, Wong GT, Irwin MG, Xia Z. Heart-type fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP) as a biomarker for acute myocardial injury and long-term post-ischemic prognosis. Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2018;39:1155-63.
158. Okamoto F, Sohmiya K, Ohkaru Y, et al. Human heart-type cytoplasmic fatty acid-binding protein (H-FABP) for the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. clinical evaluation of H-FABP in comparison with myoglobin and creatine kinase isoenzyme MB. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2000;38:231-8.
159. Ai Q, Xu F, Wang A, Mei L, Song P, Feng J. Pd@PtCu core-shell nanocrystal-assisted signal amplification for label-free electrochemical immunoanalysis of the human fatty acid binding protein biomarker. ACS Appl. Nano Mater. 2024;7:26136-44.
160. Li Y, Zhao G, An B, et al. Multimetal-based metal-organic framework system for the sensitive detection of heart-type fatty acid binding protein in electrochemiluminescence immunoassay. Anal Chem. 2024;96:4067-75.
161. Prado CM, Burgos Ferreira PA, Alves De Lima L, Gomes Trindade EK, Fireman Dutra R. A methylene blue-enhanced nanostructured electrochemical immunosensor for H-FABP myocardial injury biomarker. Biosensors. 2023;13:873.
162. Guo M, Pan Y, Du D, Wang L, Nie W. Single-electrode electrochemiluminescence immunoarray combined with smartphone for high-throughput detection of heart-type fatty acid binding protein. Microchem J. 2025;212:113249.
163. Feng Y, Zhu J, Wang A, Mei L, Luo X, Feng J. AuPt nanocrystals/polydopamine supported on open-pored hollow carbon nanospheres for a dual-signaling electrochemical ratiometric immunosensor towards h-FABP detection. Sens Actuators B Chem. 2021;346:130501.
164. Zhang Z, Liu J, Li Y, Dong J, Qiu J, Li C. A novel electrochemical immunosensor based on rifter-like Ni-TCPP(Fe) nanosheets and PSS-functionalized graphene for ultrasensitive detection of H-FABP. J Solid State Electrochem. 2023;28:389-98.
165. Li X, Lu Y, Feng J, et al. Competitive electrochemiluminescence immunosensor based on self-deposited ultrasmall Ru nanoparticles on g-C3N4 and luminol for H-FABP detection. Microchim Acta. 2025;192:369.
166. Gan X, Han D, Wang J, et al. A highly sensitive electrochemiluminescence immunosensor for h-FABP determination based on self-enhanced luminophore coupled with ultrathin 2D nickel metal-organic framework nanosheets. Biosens Bioelectron. 2021;171:112735.
167. Karaman C, Karaman O, Atar N, Yola ML. Electrochemical immunosensor development based on core-shell high-crystalline graphitic carbon nitride@carbon dots and Cd0.5Zn0.5S/d-Ti3C2Tx MXene composite for heart-type fatty acid-binding protein detection. Microchim Acta. 2021;188:182.
168. Li X, Lu X, Wang Y, Zhang Z, Zhang Y. A signal-off electrochemiluminescence immunosensor based on AgS quantum dot quenching luminol modified Ag/Cu2O/Ti3C2 nanocomposites for h-FABP detection. New J Chem. 2025;49:12980-5.
169. Gupta RK, Pandya R, Sieffert T, Meyyappan M, Koehne JE. Multiplexed electrochemical immunosensor for label-free detection of cardiac markers using a carbon nanofiber array chip. J Electroanal Chem. 2016;773:53-62.
170. Wang N, Zhao X, Chen H, et al. Fabrication of novel electrochemical immunosensor by mussel-inspired chemistry and surface-initiated PET-ATRP for the simultaneous detection of CEA and AFP. React Funct Polym. 2020;154:104632.
171. Timilsina SS, Ramasamy M, Durr N, Ahmad R, Jolly P, Ingber DE. Biofabrication of multiplexed electrochemical immunosensors for simultaneous detection of clinical biomarkers in complex fluids. Adv Healthc Mater. 2022;11:2200589.
172. Boonkaew S, Jang I, Noviana E, Siangproh W, Chailapakul O, Henry CS. Electrochemical paper-based analytical device for multiplexed, point-of-care detection of cardiovascular disease biomarkers. Sens Actuators B Chem. 2021;330:129336.
173. Zhou F, Lu M, Wang W, Bian Z, Zhang J, Zhu J. Electrochemical immunosensor for simultaneous detection of dual cardiac markers based on a poly(dimethylsiloxane)-gold nanoparticles composite microfluidic chip: a proof of principle. Clin Chem. 2010;56:1701-7.
174. Kim S, Kim S, Ko C, Lee W, Kim HD. A microfluidic electrochemical immunosensor for detection of CEA and Ki67 in 3D tumor spheroids. Materials Today Bio. 2025;32:101768.
175. Sun J, Shi Z, Holman JB, et al. An electrochemical immunosensor chip for sensing c-reactive protein and fibrinogen in early atherosclerosis. J Electrochem Soc. 2026;173:037502.
176. Tumrani SH, Soomro RA, Thabet HK, et al. Au-decorated Ti3C2Tx/porous carbon immunoplatform for ECM1 breast cancer biomarker detection with machine learning computation for predictive accuracy. Talanta. 2024;278:126507.
177. Laochai T, Yukird J, Promphet N, Qin J, Chailapakul O, Rodthongkum N. Non-invasive electrochemical immunosensor for sweat cortisol based on L-cys/AuNPs/ MXene modified thread electrode. Biosens Bioelectron. 2022;203:114039.
178. Bhardwaj H, Hashmi Z, Singh AK, Kumar G, Lakshmi GBVS, Solanki PR. An electrochemical immunosensor based on a nano-ceria integrated microfluidic chip for interleukin-8 biomarker detection. Nanoscale Adv. 2025;7:196-208.
179. Schmidt-speicher LM, Länge K. Microfluidic integration for electrochemical biosensor applications. Curr Opin Electrochem. 2021;29:100755.
180. Singh N, Kaushik A, Ghori I, et al. Electrochemical and plasmonic detection of myocardial infarction using microfluidic biochip incorporated with mesoporous nanoscaffolds. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2024;16:32794-811.
