fig6

Figure 6. Fabrication pipeline for bone tissue engineering scaffolds and scalability challenges. (A) A typical fabrication pipeline starts with a patient scan to guide the fabrication process to follow. Different biomaterial strategies (e.g., cells, bioactive molecules, and scaffolding material) are employed with a fabrication method (e.g., 3D printing and microfluidics) to generate an end-product that can be used for surgical implantation. This pipeline can be used in therapies for common craniofacial reconstruction needs such as congenital defects, cancer resections, trauma, and bone-related diseases; (B) Main challenges to applying these strategies for scalable clinical use include cell availability, high-throughput production methods, mechanical loading of the scaffold, and regulatory approval. Created in BioRender. (Vignolo S, 2025; https://BioRender.com/5illu1y).