fig5

Figure 5. Pre-vascularized scaffolds enhance bone regeneration in a rat calvarial defect model. (A-D) Pre-vascularized scaffolds incorporating hBMSCs and HUVECs form mature, pericyte-supported vascular networks; (E) Schematic of in vivo implantation timeline and representative micro-CT images at 12 weeks; (F) Immunofluorescence staining of regenerated bone shows CD31, α-SMA, and HuNU expression, confirming a stable integration of human cells within the scaffold with the host’s vascular network; (G-J) Quantification reveals greater bone volume, bridging area, and vascular integration in mature pre-vascularized groups versus PC and NC. Adapted from Subbiah et al., 2021^[251]. hBMSCs: Human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells; HUVECs: human umbilical vein endothelial cells; CT: computed tomography; PC: partially vascularized; NC: non-vascularized controls.