REFERENCES
1. McCarthy ML, MacKenzie EJ, Edwin D, Bosse MJ, Castillo RC, Starr A. LEAP study group. Psychological distress associated with severe lower-limb injury. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2003;85:1689-97.
2. Robbins CB, Vreeman DJ, Sothmann MS, Wilson SL, Oldridge NB. A review of the long-term health outcomes associated with war-related amputation. Mil Med 2009;174:588-92.
3. Gailey R, Allen K, Castles J, Kucharik J, Roeder M. Review of secondary physical conditions associated with lower-limb amputation and long-term prosthesis use. J Rehabil Res Dev 2008;45:15-29.
4. Ephraim PL, Wegener ST, MacKenzie EJ, Dillingham TR, Pezzin LE. Phantom pain, residual limb pain, and back pain in amputees: results of a national survey. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005;86:1910-9.
5. Bourke HE, Yelden KC, Robinson KP, Sooriakumaran S, Ward DA. Is revision surgery following lower-limb amputation a worthwhile procedure? Injury 2011;42:660-6.
6. Higgins TF, Klatt JB, Beals TC. Lower Extremity Assessment Project (LEAP)--the best available evidence on limb-threatening lower extremity trauma. Orthop Clin North Am 2010;41:233-9.
7. Livingston DH, Keenan D, Kim D, Elcavage J, Malangoni MA. Extent of disability following traumatic extremity amputation. J Trauma 1994;37:495-9.
8. Huang CT, Jackson JR, Moore NB, et al. Amputation: energy cost of ambulation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1979;60:18-24.
9. Court-Brown CM, Bugler KE, Clement ND, Duckworth AD, McQueen MM. The epidemiology of open fractures in adults. A 15-year review. Injury 2012;43:891-7.
10. Court-Brown CM, McBirnie J. The epidemiology of tibial fractures. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1995;77:417-21.
11. MacKenzie EJ, Bosse MJ, Kellam JF, et al. Characterization of patients with high-energy lower extremity trauma. J Orthop Trauma 2000;14:455-66.
12. Aaron RK, Herr HM, Ciombor DM, et al. Horizons in prosthesis development for the restoration of limb function. J Am Acad Orthop Surg 2006;14:S198-204.
13. MacKenzie EJ, Bosse MJ, Kellam JF, et al. LEAP Study Group. Factors influencing the decision to amputate or reconstruct after high-energy lower extremity trauma. J Trauma 2002;52:641-9.
14. Bosse MJ, MacKenzie EJ, Kellam JF, et al. An analysis of outcomes of reconstruction or amputation after leg-threatening injuries. N Engl J Med 2002;347:1924-31.
15. Hierner R, Berger AK, Frederix PR. Lower leg replantation--decision-making, treatment, and long-term results. Microsurgery 2007;27:398-410.
16. Khouri RK, Shaw WW. Reconstruction of the lower extremity with microvascular free flaps: a 10-year experience with 304 consecutive cases. J Trauma 1989;29:1086-94.
17. Culliford AT 4th, Spector J, Blank A, Karp NS, Kasabian A, Levine JP. The fate of lower extremities with failed free flaps: a single institution’s experience over 25 years. Ann Plast Surg 2007;59:18-21; discussion 21-2.
18. Nho SJ, Helfet DL, Rozbruch SR. Temporary intentional leg shortening and deformation to facilitate wound closure using the Ilizarov/Taylor spatial frame. J Orthop Trauma 2006;20:419-24.
19. Aronson J. Limb-lengthening, skeletal reconstruction, and bone transport with the Ilizarov method. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1997;79:1243-58.
20. Papakostidis C, Bhandari M, Giannoudis PV. Distraction osteogenesis in the treatment of long bone defects of the lower limbs: effectiveness, complications and clinical results; a systematic review and meta-analysis. Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1673-80.
21. Heller L, Phillips K, Levin LS. Pedicled osteocutaneous fibula flap for reconstruction in the lower extremity. Plast Reconstr Surg 2002;109:2037-42.
22. Dorafshar AH, Seitz IA, DeWolfe M, Agarwal JP, Gottlieb LJ. Split lateral iliac crest chimera flap: utility of the ascending branch of the lateral femoral circumflex vessels. Plast Reconstr Surg 2010;125:574-81.
23. Jeng SF, Kuo YR, Wei FC, Wang JW, Chen SH. Concomitant ipsilateral pedicled fibular transfer and free muscle flap for compound tibial defect reconstruction. Ann Plast Surg 2001;47:47-52.
24. Engel H, Lin CH, Wei FC. Role of microsurgery in lower extremity reconstruction. Plast Reconstr Surg 2011;127 Suppl 1:228S-38S.
25. Masquelet AC, Fitoussi F, Begue T, Muller GP. [Reconstruction of the long bones by the induced membrane and spongy autograft]. Ann Chir Plast Esthet 2000;45:346-53.
26. Bakri K, Stans AA, Mardini S, Moran SL. Combined massive allograft and intramedullary vascularized fibula transfer: the capanna technique for lower-limb reconstruction. Semin Plast Surg 2008;22:234-41.
27. Ziegler-Graham K, MacKenzie EJ, Ephraim PL, Travison TG, Brookmeyer R. Estimating the prevalence of limb loss in the United States: 2005 to 2050. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2008;89:422-9.
28. Thaunat O, Badet L, Dubois V, Kanitakis J, Petruzzo P, Morelon E. Immunopathology of rejection: do the rules of solid organ apply to vascularized composite allotransplantation? Curr Opin Organ Transplant 2015;20:596-601.
29. Bermú Dez L, Santamaría A, Romero T, Calderó DF. Experimental model of facial transplant. Plast Reconstr Surg 2002;110:1374-5.
30. Gorantla VS, Barker JH, Jones JW, Prabhune K, Maldonado C, Granger DK. Immunosuppressive agents in transplantation: Mechanisms of action and current anti-rejection strategies. Microsurgery 2000;20:420-9.
31. Cavadas PC, Thione A, Carballeira A, Blanes M. Bilateral transfemoral lower extremity transplantation: result at 1 year. Am J Transplant 2013;13:1343-9.
32. Schirò GR, Sessa S, Piccioli A, Maccauro G. Primary amputation vs limb salvage in mangled extremity: a systematic review of the current scoring system. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2015;16:372.
33. Battiston B, Tos P, Pontini I, Ferrero S. Lower limb replantations: indications and a new scoring system. Microsurgery 2002;22:187-92.
34. Koehler-McNicholas SR, Lipschutz RD, Gard SA. The biomechanical response of persons with transfemoral amputation to variations in prosthetic knee alignment during level walking. J Rehabil Res Dev 2016;53:1089-106.
35. Souza JM, Mioton LM, Harrington CJ, Potter BK, Forsberg JA. Osseointegration of extremity prostheses: a primer for the plastic surgeon. Plast Reconstr Surg 2020;146:1394-403.
36. Pezzin LE, Dillingham TR, Mackenzie EJ, Ephraim P, Rossbach P. Use and satisfaction with prosthetic limb devices and related services. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004;85:723-9.
37. Hagberg K, Brånemark R, Gunterberg B, Rydevik B. Osseointegrated trans-femoral amputation prostheses: prospective results of general and condition-specific quality of life in 18 patients at 2-year follow-up. Prosthet Orthot Int 2008;32:29-41.
38. Hagberg K, Hansson E, Brånemark R. Outcome of percutaneous osseointegrated prostheses for patients with unilateral transfemoral amputation at two-year follow-up. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2014;95:2120-7.
39. Hagberg K, Ghassemi Jahani SA, Kulbacka-Ortiz K, Thomsen P, Malchau H, Reinholdt C. A 15-year follow-up of transfemoral amputees with bone-anchored transcutaneous prostheses. Bone Joint J 2020;102-B:55-63.
40. Kilgore KL, Peckham PH, Keith MW, et al. Durability of implanted electrodes and leads in an upper-limb neuroprosthesis. J Rehabil Res Dev 2003;40:457-68.
41. Solomonow M. External control of the neuromuscular system. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1984;31:752-63.
42. Winslow BD, Ruble M, Huber Z. Mobile, game-based training for myoelectric prosthesis control. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2018;6:94.
43. Kuiken TA, Li G, Lock BA, et al. Targeted muscle reinnervation for real-time myoelectric control of multifunction artificial arms. JAMA 2009;301:619-28.
44. Hargrove LJ, Simon AM, Young AJ, et al. Robotic leg control with EMG decoding in an amputee with nerve transfers. N Engl J Med 2013;369:1237-42.
45. Frantz TL, Everhart JS, West JM, Ly TV, Phieffer LS, Valerio IL. Targeted muscle reinnervation at the time of major limb amputation in traumatic amputees: early experience of an effective treatment strategy to improve pain. JB JS Open Access 2020;5:e0067.
46. Frost CM, Ursu DC, Flattery SM, et al. Regenerative peripheral nerve interfaces for real-time, proportional control of a Neuroprosthetic hand. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2018;15:108.
47. Herr HM, Grabowski AM. Bionic ankle-foot prosthesis normalizes walking gait for persons with leg amputation. Proc Biol Sci 2012;279:457-64.
48. Hargrove LJ, Young AJ, Simon AM, et al. Intuitive control of a powered prosthetic leg during ambulation: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2015;313:2244-52.
49. Davis TS, Wark HA, Hutchinson DT, et al. Restoring motor control and sensory feedback in people with upper extremity amputations using arrays of 96 microelectrodes implanted in the median and ulnar nerves. J Neural Eng 2016;13:036001.
50. Walker CF, Lockhead GR, Markle DR, McElhaney JH. Parameters of stimulation and perception in an artificial sensory feedback system. J Bioeng 1977;1:251-6.
51. Badia J, Boretius T, Andreu D, Azevedo-Coste C, Stieglitz T, Navarro X. Comparative analysis of transverse intrafascicular multichannel, longitudinal intrafascicular and multipolar cuff electrodes for the selective stimulation of nerve fascicles. J Neural Eng 2011;8:036023.
52. Valle J, Navarro X. Interfaces with the peripheral nerve for the control of neuroprostheses. Int Rev Neurobiol 2013;109:63-83.
53. Fisher LE, Miller ME, Bailey SN, et al. Standing after spinal cord injury with four-contact nerve-cuff electrodes for quadriceps stimulation. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2008;16:473-8.
54. Caparso AV, Durand DM, Mansour JM. A nerve cuff electrode for controlled reshaping of nerve geometry. J Biomater Appl 2009;24:247-73.
55. Schiefer MA, Polasek KH, Triolo RJ, Pinault GC, Tyler DJ. Selective stimulation of the human femoral nerve with a flat interface nerve electrode. J Neural Eng 2010;7:26006.
56. Tyler DJ, Durand DM. A slowly penetrating interfascicular nerve electrode for selective activation of peripheral nerves. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1997;5:51-61.
57. Grinberg Y, Schiefer MA, Tyler DJ, Gustafson KJ. Fascicular perineurium thickness, size, and position affect model predictions of neural excitation. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2008;16:572-81.
58. Dhillon GS, Lawrence SM, Hutchinson DT, Horch KW. Residual function in peripheral nerve stumps of amputees: implications for neural control of artificial limbs. J Hand Surg Am 2004;29:605-15; discussion 616-8.
59. Boretius T, Badia J, Pascual-Font A, et al. A transverse intrafascicular multichannel electrode (TIME) to interface with the peripheral nerve. Biosens Bioelectron 2010;26:62-9.
60. Ledbetter NM, Ethier C, Oby ER, et al. Intrafascicular stimulation of monkey arm nerves evokes coordinated grasp and sensory responses. J Neurophysiol 2013;109:580-90.
61. Clark GA, Ledbetter NM, Warren DJ, Harrison RR. Recording sensory and motor information from peripheral nerves with Utah Slanted Electrode Arrays. Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc 2011;2011:4641-4.
62. Tan DW, Schiefer MA, Keith MW, Anderson JR, Tyler J, Tyler DJ. A neural interface provides long-term stable natural touch perception. Sci Transl Med 2014;6:257ra138.
63. Lotfi P, Garde K, Chouhan AK, Bengali E, Romero-Ortega MI. Modality-specific axonal regeneration: toward selective regenerative neural interfaces. Front Neuroeng 2011;4:11.
64. Hallin RG. Microneurography in relation to intraneural topography: somatotopic organisation of median nerve fascicles in humans. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1990;53:736-44.
65. Castro J, Negredo P, Avendaño C. Fiber composition of the rat sciatic nerve and its modification during regeneration through a sieve electrode. Brain Res 2008;1190:65-77.
66. Panetsos F, Avendaño C, Negredo P, Castro J, Bonacasa V. Neural prostheses: electrophysiological and histological evaluation of central nervous system alterations due to long-term implants of sieve electrodes to peripheral nerves in cats. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2008;16:223-32.
67. Clements IP, Mukhatyar VJ, Srinivasan A, Bentley JT, Andreasen DS, Bellamkonda RV. Regenerative scaffold electrodes for peripheral nerve interfacing. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2013;21:554-66.
68. la Oliva N, Mueller M, Stieglitz T, Navarro X, Del Valle J. On the use of Parylene C polymer as substrate for peripheral nerve electrodes. Sci Rep 2018;8:5965.
69. Howard CL, Wallace C, Abbas J, Stokic DS. Residual standard deviation: validation of a new measure of dual-task cost in below-knee prosthesis users. Gait Posture 2017;51:91-6.
70. Christie BP, Charkhkar H, Shell CE, Burant CJ, Tyler DJ, Triolo RJ. Ambulatory searching task reveals importance of somatosensation for lower-limb amputees. Sci Rep 2020;10:10216.
71. Biddiss EA, Chau TT. Upper limb prosthesis use and abandonment: a survey of the last 25 years. Prosthet Orthot Int 2007;31:236-57.
72. Farinetti A, Ben Gharbia D, Mancini J, Roman S, Nicollas R, Triglia JM. Cochlear implant complications in 403 patients: comparative study of adults and children and review of the literature. Eur Ann Otorhinolaryngol Head Neck Dis 2014;131:177-82.
73. Kumar K, Wilson JR, Taylor RS, Gupta S. Complications of spinal cord stimulation, suggestions to improve outcome, and financial impact. J Neurosurg Spine 2006;5:191-203.
74. Velnar T, Bunc G, Klobucar R, Gradisnik L. Biomaterials and host versus graft response: a short review. Bosn J Basic Med Sci 2016;16:82-90.
