REFERENCES
1. Nicolson GL. Chronic bacterial and viral infections in neurodegenerative and neurobehavioral diseases. Lab Med 2008;39:291-9.
2. Ischiropoulos H, Beckman JS. Oxidative stress and nitration in neurodegeneration: cause, effect or association? J Clin Invest 2003;111:163-9.
4. Bertram L, Tanzi RE. The genetic epidemiology of neurodegenerative disease. J Clin Investig 2005;115:1449-57.
5. Larsson HJ, Eaton WW, Madsen KM, Vestergaard M, Olesen AV, Agerbo E, Schendel D, Thorsen P, Mortensen PB. Risk factors for autism: perinatal factors, parental psychiatric history and socioeconomic status. Am J Epidemiol 2005;101:916-25.
6. Griffin WS. Inflammation and neurodegenerative diseases. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:S470-4.
7. Kern JK, Jones AM. Evidence of toxicity, oxidative stress and neuronal insult in autism. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 2006;9:485-99.
8. Muravchick S, Levy RJ. Clinical implications of mitochondrial dysfunction. Anesthesiology 2006;105:819-37.
9. Pareja ME, Colombo MI. Autophagic clearance of bacterial pathogens: molecular recognition of intracellular microorganisms. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013;3:54.
10. Sharma M, Bhattacharyya S, Sharma KB, Chauhan S, Asthana S, Abdin MZ, Vrati S, Kalia M. Japanese encephalitis virus activates autophagy through XBP1 and ATF6 ER stress sensors in neuronal cells. J Gen Virol 2017;98:1027-39.
11. Di Cristina M, Dou Z, Lunghi M, Kannan G, Huynh MH, McGovern OL, Schultz TL, Schultz AJ, Miller AJ, Hayes BM, van der Linden W, Emiliani C, Bogyo M, Besteiro S, Coppens I, Carruthers VB. Toxoplasma depends on lysosomal consumption of autophagosomes for persistent infection. Nat Microbiol 2017;2:17096.
12. Wu TT, Li WM, Yao YM. Interactions between autophagy and inhibitory cytokines. Int J Biol Sci 2016;12:884-97.
13. Tooze SA, Schiavo G. Liaisons dangereuses: autophagy, neuronal survival and neurodegeneration. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2008;18:504-15.
14. Louveau A, Smirnov I, Keyes TJ, Eccles JD, Rouhani SJ, Peske JD, Derecki NC, Castle D, Mandell JW, Lee KS, Harris TH, Kipnis J. Structural and functional features of central nervous system lymphatic vessels. Nature 2015;523:337-41.
15. Kreutzberg GW. Microglia: a sensor for pathological events in the CNS. Trends Neurosci 1996;19:312-8.
17. Colton CA, Gilbert DL. Production of superoxide anions by a CNS macrophage, the microglia. FEBS Lett 1987;223:284-8.
19. Banati RB, Rothe G, Valet G, Kreutzberg GW. Detection of lysosomal cysteine proteinases in microglia: flow cytometric measurement and histochemical localization of cathepsin B and L. Glia 1993;7:183-91.
20. Giulian D, Vaca K, Noonan CA. Secretion of neurotoxins by mononuclear phagocytes infected with HIV-1. Science 1990;250:1593-6.
21. Théry C, Chamak B, Mallat M. Cytotoxic effect of brain macrophages on developing. Eur J Neurosci 1991;3:1155-64.
22. Lee SC, Dickson DW, Liu W, Brosnan CF. Induction of nitric oxide synthase activity in human astrocytes by interleukin-1 beta and interferon-gamma. J Neuroimmunol 1993;46:19-24.
23. Keller CW, Lünemann JD. Autophagy and autophagy-related proteins in CNS autoimmunity. Front Immunol 2017;8:165.
24. Choy A, Roy CR. Autophagy and bacterial infection: an evolving arms race. Trends Microbiol 2013;21:451-6.
25. Netea-Maier RT, Plantinga TS, van de Veerdonk FL, Smit JW, Netea MG. Modulation of inflammation by autophagy: consequences for human disease. Autophagy 2016;12:245-60.
26. Parzych KR, Klionsky DJ. An overview of autophagy: morphology, mechanism, and regulation. Antioxid Redox Signal 2014;20:460-73.
28. Abeliovich H, Dunn WA Jr, Kim J, Klionsky DJ. Dissection of autophagosome biogenesis into distinct nucleation and expansion steps. J Cell Biol 2000;151:1025-34.
29. Kamada Y, Funakoshi T, Shintani T, Nagano K, Ohsumi M, Ohsumi Y. Tor-mediated induction of autophagy via an Apg1 protein kinase complex. J Cell Biol 2000;150:1507-13.
30. Tallóczy Z, Jiang W, Virgin HW 4th, Leib DA, Scheuner D, Kaufman RJ, Eskelinen EL, Levine B. Regulation of starvation- and virus-induced autophagy by the eIF2alpha kinase signaling pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002;99:190-5.
31. Rosello A, Warnes G, Meier UC. Cell death pathways and autophagy in the central nervous system and its involvement in neurodegeneration, immunity and central nervous system infection: to die or not to die-that is the question. Clin Exp Immunol 2012;168:52-7.
32. Nold MF, Nold-Petry CA, Zepp JA, Palmer BE, Bufler P, Dinarello CA. IL-37 is a fundamental inhibitor of innate immunity. Nat Immunol 2010;11:1014-22.
33. Collison LW, Workman CJ, Kuo TT, Boyd K, Wang Y, Vignali KM, Cross R, Sehy D, Blumberg RS, Vignali DA. The inhibitory cytokine IL-35 contributes to regulatory T-cell function. Nature 2007;450:566-9.
34. Amer AO, Swanson MS. Autophagy is an immediate macrophage response to Legionella pneumophila. Cell Microbiol 2005;7:765-78.
35. Romano PS, Gutierrez MG, Berón W, Rabinovitch M, Colombo MI. The autophagic pathway is actively modulated by phase II Coxiella burnetii to efficiently replicate in the host cell. Cell Microbiol 2007;9:891-909.
36. Mestre MB, Colombo MI. Staphylococcus aureus promotes autophagy by decreasing intracellular cAMP levels. Autophagy 2012;8:1865-7.
37. Wileman T. Aggresomes and pericentriolar sites of virus assembly: cellular defense or viral design? Annu Rev Microbiol 2007;61:149-67.
38. Virna S, Deckert M, Lütjen S, Soltek S, Foulds KE, Shen H, Körner H, Sedgwick JD, Schlüter D. TNF is important for pathogen control and limits brain damage in murine cerebral listeriosis. J Immunol 2006;177:3972-82.
39. Disson O, Lecuit M. Targeting of the central nervous system by Listeria monocytogenes. Virulence 2012;3:213-21.
40. Remuzgo-Martínez S, San Segundo D, Cruz CS, Beares I, Valdizáncd EM, Icardo JM, Ramos-Vivas J. Absence of core autophagy gene expression in an ex vivo central nervous system model infected with Listeria monocytogenes. Inmunología 2013;32:87-93.
41. Kishore R, Krishnamurthy P, Garikipati VN, Benedict C, Nickoloff E, Khan M, Johnson J, Gumpert AM, Koch WJ, Verma SK. Interleukin-10 inhibits chronic angiotensin II-induced pathological autophagy. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2015;89:203-13.
42. Deretic V, Levine B. Autophagy, immunity, and microbial adaptations. Cell Host Microbe 2009;5:527-49.
43. Orvedahl A, Alexander D, Tallóczy Z, Sun Q, Wei Y, Zhang W, Burns D, Leib DA, Levine B. HSV-1 ICP34.5 confers neurovirulence by targeting the Beclin 1 autophagy protein. Cell Host Microbe 2007;1:23-35.
44. Santana S, Sastre I, Recuero M, Bullido MJ, Aldudo J. Oxidative stress enhances neurodegeneration markers induced by herpes simplex virus type 1 infection in human neuroblastoma cells. PLoS One 2013;8:e75842.
45. Yoon SY, Ha YE, Choi JE, Ahn J, Lee H, Kweon HS, Lee JY, Kim DH. Coxsackievirus B4 uses autophagy for replication after calpain activation in rat primary neurons. J Virol 2008;82:11976-8.
46. Mitchell G, Ge L, Huang Q, Chen C, Kianian S, Roberts MF, Schekman R, Portnoy DA. Avoidance of autophagy mediated by PlcA or ActA is required for Listeria monocytogenes growth in macrophages. Infect Immun 2015;83:2175-84.
47. Li JK, Liang JJ, Liao CL, Lin YL. Autophagy is involved in the early step of Japanese encephalitis virus infection. Microbes Infect 2012;14:159-68.
48. Jin R, Zhu W, Cao S, Chen R, Jin H, Liu Y, Wang S, Wang W, Xiao G. Japanese encephalitis virus activates autophagy as a viral immune evasion strategy. PLoS One 2013;8:e52909.
49. Wang H, Sun HQ, Zhu X, Zhang L, Albanesi J, Levine B, Yin H. GABARAPs regulate PI4P-dependent autophagosome: lysosome fusion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015;112:7015-20.
50. Alirezaei M, Kiosses WB, Fox HS. Decreased neuronal autophagy in HIV dementia: a mechanism of indirect neurotoxicity. Autophagy 2008;4:963-6.
51. Wilkinson J, Radkowski M, Laskus T. Hepatitis C virus neuroinvasion: identification of infected cells. J Virol 2009;83:1312-9.
52. Adinolfi LE, Nevola R, Lus G, Restivo L, Guerrera B, Romano C, Zampino R, Rinaldi L, Sellitto A, Giordano M, Marrone A. Chronic hepatitis C virus infection and neurological and psychiatric disorders: an overview. World J Gastroenterol 2015;21:2269-80.
53. Fletcher NF, Wilson GK, Murray J, Hu K, Lewis A, Reynolds GM, Stamataki Z, Meredith LW, Rowe IA, Luo G, Lopez-Ramirez MA, Baumert TF, Weksler B, Couraud PO, Kim KS, Romero IA, Jopling C, Morgello S, Balfe P, McKeating JA. Hepatitis C virus infects the endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier. Gastroenterology 2012;142:634-43.e6.
54. Vivithanaporn P, Maingat F, Lin LT, Na H, Richardson CD, Agrawal B, Cohen EA, Jhamandas JH, Power C. Hepatitis C virus core protein induces neuroimmune activation and potentiates Human Immunodeficiency virus-1 neurotoxicity. PLoS One 2010;5:e12856.
55. Ron D, Walter P. Signal integration in the endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2007;8:519-29.
56. Tanida I, Fukasawa M, Ueno T, Kominami E, Wakita T, Hanada K. Knockdown of autophagy-related gene decreases the production of infectious hepatitis C virus particles. Autophagy 2009;5:937-45.
57. Ke PY, Chen SS. Activation of the unfolded protein response and autophagy after hepatitis C virus infection suppresses innate antiviral immunity in vitro. J Clin Invest 2011;121:37-56.
58. Heaton NS, Randall G. Dengue virus-induced autophagy regulates lipid metabolism. Cell Host Microbe 2010;8:422-32.
59. Remaut K, Oorschot V, Braeckmans K, Klumperman J, De Smedt SC. Lysosomal capturing of cytoplasmic injected nanoparticles by autophagy: an additional barrier to non-viral gene delivery. J Control Release 2014;195:29-36.
60. Spector SA, Zhou D. Autophagy: an overlooked mechanism of HIV-1 pathogenesis and neuro AIDS? Autophagy 2008;4:704-6.
61. Wilcox DR, Wadhwani NR, Longnecker R, Muller WJ. Differential reliance on autophagy for protection from HSV encephalitis between newborns and adults. PLoS Pathog 20158;11:e1004580.
62. Campbell GR, Spector SA. Inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 through autophagy. Curr Opin Microbiol 2013;16:349-54.
63. Campbell GR, Spector SA. Toll-like receptor 8 ligands activate a vitamin D mediated autophagic response that inhibits human immunodeficiency virus type 1. PLoS Pathog 2012;8:e1003017.
64. Meng C, Zhou Z, Jiang K, Yu S, Jia L, Wu Y, Liu Y, Meng S, Ding C. Newcastle disease virus triggers autophagy in U251 glioma cells to enhance virus replication. Arch Virol 2012;157:1011-8.
65. Zhou D, Masliah E, Spector SA. Autophagy is increased in postmortem brains of persons with HIV-1-associated encephalitis. J Infect Dis 2011;203:1647-57.
66. Mizushima N, Yamamoto A, Matsui M, Yoshimori T, Ohsumi Y. In vivo analysis of autophagy in response to nutrient starvation using transgenic mice expressing a fluorescent autophagosome marker. Mol Biol Cell 2004;15:1101-11.
67. Orvedahl A, MacPherson S, Sumpter R Jr, Tallóczy Z, Zou Z, Levine B. Autophagy protects against Sindbis virus infection of the central nervous system. Cell Host Microbe 2010;7:115-27.
68. Dron M, Bailly Y, Beringue V, Haeberlé AM, Griffond B, Risold PY, Tovey MG, Laude H, Dandoy-Dron F. SCRG1, a potential marker of autophagy in transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Autophagy 2006;2:58-60.
69. Boellaard JW, Kao M, Schlote W, Diringer H. Neuronal autophagy in experimental scrapie. Acta Neuropathol 1991;82:225-8.
70. Jeffrey M, Scott JR, Williams A, Fraser H. Ultrastructural features of spongiform encephalopathy transmitted to mice from three species of bovidae. Acta Neuropathol 1992;84:559-69.
71. Shintani T, Klionsky DJ. Autophagy in health and disease: a double-edged sword. Science 2004;306:990-5.
72. Ravikumar B, Vacher C, Berger Z, Davies JE, Luo S, Oroz LG, Scaravilli F, Easton DF, Duden R, O'Kane CJ, Rubinsztein DC. Inhibition of mTOR induces autophagy and reduces toxicity of polyglutamine expansions in fly and mouse models of Huntington disease. Nat Genet 2004;36:585-95.
73. Yue Z, Friedman L, Komatsu M, Tanaka K. The cellular pathways of neuronal autophagy and their implication in neurodegenerative diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta 2009;1793:1496-507.
74. Agnihotri N, Mehta K. Transglutaminase-2: evolution from pedestrian protein to a promising therapeutic target. Amino Acids 2017;49:425-39.
75. Sun Y, Jin L, Liu JH, Sui YX, Han LL, Shen XL. Interfering EZH2 expression reverses the cisplatin resistance in human ovarian cancer by inhibiting autophagy. Cancer Biother Radiopharm 2016;31:246-52.
