Recent advances in synthesis and structural diversity of tin oxo clusters

Tin oxo clusters (TOCs) are a distinctive class of metal oxo clusters (MOCs) that serve as a unique bridge between molecular design and macroscopic material properties. This review provides a comprehensive and systematic overview of recent advances in the synthesis, structural diversity, and functional applications of TOCs. We elaborate on how innovative synthetic strategies - including solvothermal synthesis, ligand-directed assembly, and heterometallic incorporation with secondary metal ions - enable exquisite control over the nuclearity, architectural topology, and surface chemistry of TOCs. The discussion explores the rich structure of TOCs, spanning from fundamental cage-like and drum-shaped architectures to elaborate high-nuclearity macrocycles and hybrid frameworks, all unified by well-defined Sn–O–Sn core motifs that afford atomic-level insights into tin oxide coordination chemistry. Furthermore, this review offers a forward-looking perspective by identifying critical future research directions, including the development of predictive synthesis methodologies, multifunctional integration via structural engineering, and translational research toward practical applications.