REFERENCES

1. Cross M, Ong KL, Culbreth GT, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of gout, 1990-2020, and projections to 2050: a systematic analysis of the global burden of disease study 2021. Lancet Rheumatol. 2024;6:e507-17.

2. Abhishek A, Roddy E, Doherty M. Gout - a guide for the general and acute physicians. Clin Med. 2017;17:54-9.

3. Zhang W. Uric acid en route to gout. In: Makowski GS, Editor. Advances In Clinical Chemistry. Elsevier; 2023. pp. 209-75.

4. Dalbeth N, Merriman TR, Stamp LK. Gout. Lancet. 2016;388:2039-52.

5. Garg M, Karpinski M, Matelska D, et al. Disease prediction with multi-omics and biomarkers empowers case-control genetic discoveries in the UK Biobank. Nat Genet. 2024;56:1821-31.

6. Cox N. UK Biobank shares the promise of big data. Nature. 2018;562:194-5.

7. Cadzow M, Merriman TR, Dalbeth N. Performance of gout definitions for genetic epidemiological studies: analysis of UK Biobank. Arthritis Res Ther. 2017;19:181.

8. Tin A, Marten J, Halperin Kuhns VL, et al. Target genes, variants, tissues and transcriptional pathways influencing human serum urate levels. Nat Genet. 2019;51:1459-74.

9. Narang RK, Topless R, Cadzow M, et al. Interactions between serum urate-associated genetic variants and sex on gout risk: analysis of the UK Biobank. Arthritis Res Ther. 2019;21:13.

10. Tai V, Narang RK, Gamble G, et al. Do serum urate-associated genetic variants differentially contribute to gout risk according to body mass index? Analysis of the UK Biobank. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2020;72:1184-91.

11. Sandoval-Plata G, Morgan K, Abhishek A. Variants in urate transporters, ADH1B, GCKR and MEPE genes associate with transition from asymptomatic hyperuricaemia to gout: results of the first gout versus asymptomatic hyperuricaemia GWAS in Caucasians using data from the UK Biobank. Ann Rheum Dis. 2021;80:1220-6.

12. Major TJ, Takei R, Matsuo H, et al. A genome-wide association analysis reveals new pathogenic pathways in gout. Nat Genet. 2024;56:2392-406.

13. Tao Y, Cai T, Pan Q, et al. Genetic variants associated with gout identified through a genome-wide study in the UK biobank (N = 150 542). Hum Mol Genet. 2025;34:1951-63.

14. McCormick N, O’Connor MJ, Yokose C, et al. Assessing the causal relationships between insulin resistance and hyperuricemia and gout using bidirectional Mendelian randomization. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2021;73:2096-104.

15. Adams CD, Boutwell BB. Using multiple Mendelian randomization approaches and genetic correlations to understand obesity, urate, and gout. Sci Rep. 2021;11:17799.

16. Zhang Y, Yang R, Dove A, et al. Healthy lifestyle counteracts the risk effect of genetic factors on incident gout: a large population-based longitudinal study. BMC Med. 2022;20:138.

17. Wu Q, He P, Ye Z, et al. Sleep patterns, genetic susceptibility, and risk of new-onset gout: the UK Biobank prospective cohort study. J Psychosom Res. 2023;170:111381.

18. Lyu JQ, Miao MY, Wang JM, et al. Consumption of total and specific alcoholic beverages and long-term risk of gout among men and women. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7:e2430700.

19. Dai H, Hou T, Wang Q, et al. The effect of metformin on urate metabolism: findings from observational and Mendelian randomization analyses. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2024;26:242-50.

20. Liu M, Ye Z, Zhang Y, et al. Associations of habitual glucosamine supplementation with incident gout: a large population based cohort study. Biol Sex Differ. 2022;13:52.

21. Li A, Zhang Q, Zhou L, et al. Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and incident gout: a prospective cohort study in the UK Biobank. Environ Pollut. 2024;345:123540.

22. Liu W, Ye L, Hua B, et al. Association between combined exposure to ambient air pollutants, genetic risk, and incident gout risk: a prospective cohort study in the UK Biobank. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2024;66:152445.

23. Jiang Y, Liu S, Liu G, Pan A, Peng M, Liao Y. Association between sex hormones and gout: an analysis of the UK Biobank cohort. Steroids. 2024;207:109422.

24. Joshi AD, McCormick N, Yokose C, et al. Prediagnostic glycoprotein acetyl levels and incident and recurrent flare risk accounting for serum urate levels: a population-based, prospective study and Mendelian randomization analysis. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2023;75:1648-57.

25. Agrawal M, Niroula A, Cunin P, et al. TET2-mutant clonal hematopoiesis and risk of gout. Blood. 2022;140:1094-103.

26. Sandoval-Plata G, Nakafero G, Chakravorty M, Morgan K, Abhishek A. Association between serum urate, gout and comorbidities: a case-control study using data from the UK Biobank. Rheumatology. 2021;60:3243-51.

27. Zhu J, Zeng Y, Zhang H, et al. The association of hyperuricemia and gout with the risk of cardiovascular diseases: a cohort and Mendelian randomization study in UK Biobank. Front Med. 2021;8:817150.

28. Narang RK, Gamble GG, Topless R, et al. Assessing the relationship between serum urate and urolithiasis using Mendelian randomization: an analysis of the UK Biobank. Am J Kidney Dis. 2021;78:210-8.

29. Topless RK, Gaffo A, Stamp LK, Robinson PC, Dalbeth N, Merriman TR. Gout and the risk of COVID-19 diagnosis and death in the UK Biobank: a population-based study. Lancet Rheumatol. 2022;4:e274-81.

30. Kang Z, Zhang J, Zhu C, et al. Impaired pulmonary function increases the risk of gout: evidence from a large cohort study in the UK Biobank. BMC Med. 2024;22:606.

31. Liu X, Wang Y, Song H, et al. Metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease and the risk of gout: a UK Biobank prospective cohort study. Eur J Med Res. 2025;30:1027.

32. Boocock J, Leask M, Okada Y, et al. Genomic dissection of 43 serum urate-associated loci provides multiple insights into molecular mechanisms of urate control. Hum Mol Genet. 2020;29:923-43.

33. Risk Score Task Force of the International Common Disease Alliance. Responsible use of polygenic risk scores in the clinic: potential benefits, risks and gaps. Nat Med. 2021;27:1876-84.

34. Lewis ACF, Green RC. Polygenic risk scores in the clinic: new perspectives needed on familiar ethical issues. Genome Med. 2021;13:14.

35. Karlsson T, Hadizadeh F, Rask-Andersen M, Johansson Å, Ek WE. Body mass index and the risk of rheumatic disease: linear and nonlinear Mendelian randomization analyses. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2023;75:2027-35.

36. Lin KC, Lin HY, Chou P. The interaction between uric acid level and other risk factors on the development of gout among asymptomatic hyperuricemic men in a prospective study. J Rheumatol. 2000;27:1501-5.

37. Bhole V, de Vera M, Rahman MM, Krishnan E, Choi H. Epidemiology of gout in women: fifty-two-year followup of a prospective cohort. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62:1069-76.

38. Panlu K, Zhou Z, Huang L, Ge L, Wen C, Lv H. Associations between obesity and hyperuricemia combing Mendelian randomization with network pharmacology. Heliyon. 2024;10:e27074.

39. Li N, Chen Z, Han M, et al. Biological aging and gout risk in hyperuricemia: a UK Biobank cohort study. Int J Surg. 2026;112:3541-52.

40. Sun Y, Liu W, Li D, et al. Association between frailty and gout in middle-aged and older adults: a nationwide cross-sectional and Mendelian randomization study. Medicine. 2025;104:e45794.

41. Lv Z, Cui J, Zhang J. Associations between serum urate and telomere length and inflammation markers: evidence from UK Biobank cohort. Front Immunol. 2022;13:1065739.

42. Chuah MH, Leask MP, Topless RK, et al. Interaction of genetic variation at ADH1B and MLXIPL with alcohol consumption for elevated serum urate level and gout among people of European ethnicity. Arthritis Res Ther. 2024;26:45.

43. Choi HK, Atkinson K, Karlson EW, Willett W, Curhan G. Alcohol intake and risk of incident gout in men: a prospective study. Lancet. 2004;363:1277-81.

44. Neogi T, Chen C, Niu J, Chaisson C, Hunter DJ, Zhang Y. Alcohol quantity and type on risk of recurrent gout attacks: an internet-based case-crossover study. Am J Med. 2014;127:311-8.

45. Guo H, Wang S, Peng H, et al. Dose-response relationships of tea and coffee consumption with gout: a prospective cohort study in the UK Biobank. Rheumatology. 2023;62:3043-50.

46. Choi HK, Willett W, Curhan G. Coffee consumption and risk of incident gout in men: a prospective study. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56:2049-55.

47. Choi HK, Curhan G. Coffee consumption and risk of incident gout in women: the nurses’ health study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;92:922-7.

48. Hutton J, Fatima T, Major TJ, et al. Mediation analysis to understand genetic relationships between habitual coffee intake and gout. Arthritis Res Ther. 2018;20:135.

49. Nicolopoulos K, Mulugeta A, Zhou A, Hyppönen E. Association between habitual coffee consumption and multiple disease outcomes: a Mendelian randomisation phenome-wide association study in the UK Biobank. Clin Nutr. 2020;39:3467-76.

50. Shirai Y, Nakayama A, Kawamura Y, et al. Coffee consumption reduces gout risk independently of serum uric acid levels: Mendelian randomization analyses across ancestry populations. ACR Open Rheumatol. 2022;4:534-9.

51. Qin T, Chu Y, Yao Y, Zhang C, Xu B, Song Q. Coffee intake reduced gout risk by decreasing urate and urea while increasing SHBG levels in plasma: a mediation Mendelian randomization study. Clin Rheumatol. 2024;43:1735-43.

52. Yu Y, Yang X, Hu G, Tong K, Yin Y, Yu R. Effect of tea intake on genetic predisposition to gout and uric acid: a Mendelian randomization study. Front Endocrinol. 2023;14:1290731.

53. Zhang T, Xu X, Chang Q, et al. Ultraprocessed food consumption, genetic predisposition, and the risk of gout: the UK Biobank study. Rheumatology. 2024;63:165-73.

54. Hua B, Dong Z, Yang Y, et al. Dietary carbohydrates, genetic susceptibility, and gout risk: a prospective cohort study in the UK. Nutrients. 2024;16:2883.

55. Wang X, Rai SK, Zhang W, et al. Empirical dietary index for lower urate concentrations and risk of gout: evidence from cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 2025;122:793-802.

56. Major TJ, Topless RK, Dalbeth N, Merriman TR. Evaluation of the diet wide contribution to serum urate levels: meta-analysis of population based cohorts. BMJ. 2018;363:k3951.

57. Topless RKG, Major TJ, Florez JC, et al. The comparative effect of exposure to various risk factors on the risk of hyperuricaemia: diet has a weak causal effect. Arthritis Res Ther. 2021;23:75.

58. Tao HW, Liu ZY, Jiang W, et al. Lower plasma linoleic acids as a risk factor for gout: an integrated analysis of population-based cohort and genetic data. Food Funct. 2024;15:7567-76.

59. Chen L, Tan T, Wu Q, et al. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid and risk of gout: a cohort study integrating genetic predisposition and metabolomics. Eur J Epidemiol. 2025;40:427-39.

60. Wu Z, Hu Y, He H, et al. Association of walking volume and intensity with incident gout: a population-based cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2025;194:2945-53.

61. Wang Q, Liu Y, Zhu B. Accelerometer-derived physical activity patterns and risk of incident gout: a prospective cohort study of 97,387 UK Biobank participants. Arthritis Res Ther. 2025;28:38.

62. Wu Z, Hu Y, Wang Y, et al. Genetic susceptibility, walking activity and the risk of incident gout. Rheumatology. 2026;65:keaf690.

63. Guan Y, Wei J, Meng L, et al. Genetically predicted physical activity is associated with lower serum urate concentrations. Genes Genomics. 2022;44:843-53.

64. Yang T, Bi S, Zhang X, Yin M, Feng S, Li H. The impact of different intensities of physical activity on serum urate and gout: a Mendelian randomization study. Metabolites. 2024;14:66.

65. Zou C, Wang Z, Huang W, et al. Linear and non-linear Mendelian randomization analyses of sex-specific associations between sleep duration and hyperuricemia. Front Nutr. 2022;9:920791.

66. Gee Teng G, Pan A, Yuan JM, Koh WP. Cigarette smoking and the risk of incident gout in a prospective cohort study. Arthritis Care Res. 2016;68:1135-42.

67. Burke BT, Köttgen A, Law A, et al. Gout in older adults: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2016;71:536-42.

68. Narang RK, Gamble G, Phipps-Green AJ, et al. Do serum urate-associated genetic variants influence gout risk in people taking diuretics? Analysis of the UK Biobank. J Rheumatol. 2020;47:1704-11.

69. Asiimwe IG, Walker L, Sofat R, Jorgensen AL, Pirmohamed M. Genetic determinants of thiazide-induced hyperuricemia, hyperglycemia, and urinary electrolyte disturbances - a genome-wide evaluation of the UK Biobank. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2024;115:1408-17.

70. McAdams-DeMarco MA, Maynard JW, Baer AN, Kao LW, Kottgen A, Coresh J. A urate gene-by-diuretic interaction and gout risk in participants with hypertension: results from the ARIC study. Ann Rheum Dis. 2013;72:701-6.

71. Marrugo J, Santacroce LM, Paudel ML, et al. Gout risk in adults with pre-diabetes initiating metformin. Ann Rheum Dis. 2024;83:1368-74.

72. Zhao SS, Rajasundaram S, Karhunen V, Alam U, Gill D. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 1 inhibition and gout: Mendelian randomisation study. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2022;56:152058.

73. McCormick N, Yokose C, Lu N, et al. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors vs sulfonylureas for gout prevention among patients with type 2 diabetes receiving metformin. JAMA Intern Med. 2024;184:650-60.

74. Preston FG, Anson M, Riley DR, et al. SGLT2 inhibitors, but not GLP-1 receptor agonists, reduce incidence of gout in people living with type 2 diabetes across the therapeutic spectrum. Clin Ther. 2024;46:835-40.

75. Tang YX, Bloom MS, Qian ZM, et al. Association between ambient air pollution and hyperuricemia in traffic police officers in China: a cohort study. Int J Environ Health Res. 2021;31:54-62.

76. Duan L, Zhang M, Cao Y, et al. Exposure to ambient air pollutants is associated with an increased incidence of hyperuricemia: a longitudinal cohort study among Chinese government employees. Environ Res. 2023;235:116631.

77. Tang YX, Zhang YT, Xu YJ, et al. Exposure to ambient particulate matter and hyperuricemia: An eight-year prospective cohort study on male traffic officers in China. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf. 2023;249:114354.

78. Wei S, Zhang J, Ren S, Ye D, Fang X. Associations of domestic hard water metrics with the risk of gout incidence and recurrence. PLoS One. 2025;20:e0326052.

79. Schwartz BF, Schenkman NS, Bruce JE, Leslie SW, Stoller ML. Calcium nephrolithiasis: effect of water hardness on urinary electrolytes. Urology. 2002;60:23-7.

80. Yuan S, Wang L, Sun J, et al. Genetically predicted sex hormone levels and health outcomes: phenome-wide Mendelian randomization investigation. Int J Epidemiol. 2022;51:1931-42.

81. McCormick N, Joshi AD, Yokose C, et al. Prediagnostic amino acid metabolites and risk of gout, accounting for serum urate: prospective cohort study and Mendelian randomization. Arthritis Care Res. 2024;76:1666-74.

82. Sun M, Vazquez AI, Reynolds RJ, et al. Untangling the complex relationships between incident gout risk, serum urate, and its comorbidities. Arthritis Res Ther. 2018;20:90.

83. Li X, Meng X, Spiliopoulou A, et al. MR-PheWAS: exploring the causal effect of SUA level on multiple disease outcomes by using genetic instruments in UK Biobank. Ann Rheum Dis. 2018;77:1039-47.

84. Li X, Meng X, He Y, et al. Genetically determined serum urate levels and cardiovascular and other diseases in UK Biobank cohort: a phenome-wide Mendelian randomization study. PLoS Med. 2019;16:e1002937.

85. Gill D, Cameron AC, Burgess S, et al. Urate, blood pressure, and cardiovascular disease: evidence from Mendelian randomization and meta-analysis of clinical trials. Hypertension. 2021;77:383-92.

86. Jung SM, Jung SH, Lee SN, et al. The impact of lifestyle on cardiovascular risk in patients with gout: a population-based cohort study. Eur Heart J Qual Care Clin Outcomes. 2025;11:397-405.

87. Moon KW, Jung SH, Do H, et al. Cardiovascular risk according to genetic predisposition to gout, lifestyle and metabolic health across prospective European and Korean cohorts. RMD Open. 2024;10:e004552.

88. Jordan DM, Choi HK, Verbanck M, et al. No causal effects of serum urate levels on the risk of chronic kidney disease: a Mendelian randomization study. PLoS Med. 2019;16:e1002725.

89. Liu S, Li F, Cai Y, et al. Gout drives metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease through gut microbiota and inflammatory mediators. Sci Rep. 2025;15:9395.

90. Zhang T, Ye R, Shen Z, et al. Joint association of serum urate and healthy diet with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease incidence: results from the UK Biobank study. Food Funct. 2024;15:4642-51.

91. Topless RK, Phipps-Green A, Leask M, et al. Gout, rheumatoid arthritis, and the risk of death related to coronavirus disease 2019: an analysis of the UK Biobank. ACR Open Rheumatol. 2021;3:333-40.

92. Li Y, Zhu H, Xu Z, et al. J-shaped associations of serum urate with all-cause and cause-specific mortality in diabetes: mediation by kidney function. Acta Diabetol. 2026;63:507-19.

93. Wu C, Pan C, Liu L, Li W. Association of metabolic syndrome and hyperuricemia with mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease: a UK biobank study. BMC Nephrol. 2025;26:696.

94. Jiang Z, Chen J, Wu S, et al. Serum uric acid levels associated with outcomes of neurodegenerative disorders and brain health: findings from the UK Biobank. J Nutr Health Aging. 2024;28:100319.

95. Shi W, Zhang J, Wei S, et al. Assessing the impact of gout on cancer risk and the role of healthy lifestyles. Front Oncol. 2025;15:1557175.

96. Horsfall LJ, Hall IP, Nazareth I. Serum urate and lung cancer: a cohort study and Mendelian randomization using UK Biobank. Respir Res. 2021;22:179.

97. Zhou Y, Xu K, Hu H, Ba Q, Shen N, Lu Y. Serum urate levels and colorectal cancer risk: a prospective cohort study in of the UK biobank and a Mendelian randomization analysis. Discov Oncol. 2025;16:2063.

98. Lee YH, Song GG. Uric acid level, gout and bone mineral density: a Mendelian randomization study. Eur J Clin Invest. 2019;49:e13156.

99. Yao Y, Chu X, Ma M, et al. Evaluate the effects of serum urate level on bone mineral density: a genome-wide gene-environment interaction analysis in UK Biobank cohort. Endocrine. 2021;73:702-11.

100. Gao Q, He L, Zhang J, Zhu L. Causal association between erectile dysfunction with urate levels and gout: a two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Arch Esp Urol. 2025;78:902-8.

101. Sudlow C, Gallacher J, Allen N, et al. UK biobank: an open access resource for identifying the causes of a wide range of complex diseases of middle and old age. PLoS Med. 2015;12:e1001779.

102. Fry A, Littlejohns TJ, Sudlow C, et al. Comparison of sociodemographic and health-related characteristics of UK Biobank participants with those of the general population. Am J Epidemiol. 2017;186:1026-34.

103. van Alten S, Domingue BW, Faul J, Galama T, Marees AT. Reweighting UK Biobank corrects for pervasive selection bias due to volunteering. Int J Epidemiol. 2024:53.

104. Cho C, Kim B, Kim DS, et al. Large-scale cross-ancestry genome-wide meta-analysis of serum urate. Nat Commun. 2024;15:3441.

105. Köttgen A, Albrecht E, Teumer A, et al. Genome-wide association analyses identify 18 new loci associated with serum urate concentrations. Nat Genet. 2013;45:145-54.

106. Vitart V, Rudan I, Hayward C, et al. SLC2A9 is a newly identified urate transporter influencing serum urate concentration, urate excretion and gout. Nat Genet. 2008;40:437-42.

107. Döring A, Gieger C, Mehta D, et al. SLC2A9 influences uric acid concentrations with pronounced sex-specific effects. Nat Genet. 2008;40:430-6.

108. Chiba T, Matsuo H, Kawamura Y, et al. NPT1/SLC17A1 is a renal urate exporter in humans and its common gain-of-function variant decreases the risk of renal underexcretion gout. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2015;67:281-7.

109. Fujii W, Yamazaki O, Hirohama D, et al. Gene-environment interaction modifies the association between hyperinsulinemia and serum urate levels through SLC22A12. J Clin Invest. 2025:135.

110. Yin W, Luo D, Huang W, Jiang H, Wang Y, Qi H. Lifestyle factors and hyperuricemia risk: a prospective cohort study of 14,635 participants examining the protective role of daily stair climbing. Front Nutr. 2025;12:1635746.

111. Choi HK, Atkinson K, Karlson EW, Curhan G. Obesity, weight change, hypertension, diuretic use, and risk of gout in men: the health professionals follow-up study. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:742-8.

Journal of Translational Genetics and Genomics
ISSN 2578-5281 (Online)
Follow Us

Portico

All published articles are preserved here permanently:

https://www.portico.org/publishers/oae/

Portico

All published articles are preserved here permanently:

https://www.portico.org/publishers/oae/