Climate change and microplastics: a two-way interaction
0 
, Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) maintain a bidirectional relationship with climate change, simultaneously contributing to global warming and being influenced by it. The production, use, and disposal of plastics generate substantial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, from the high energy demands of manufacturing to their degradation in the environment. In aquatic ecosystems, MPs reduce phytoplankton activity, compromising primary productivity and decreasing CO2 uptake. In both terrestrial and aquatic systems, MPs disrupt biogeochemical cycles, influencing GHG emissions and exacerbating global warming. Atmospheric MPs affect regional and global radiative balances by altering Earth’s cooling processes and contributing to cloud formation and dust transport. In polar environments, the deposition and subsequent release of MPs from melting ice accelerates climate feedback, exposing new areas to further warming. MPs also alter microbial communities, affecting oxygen consumption and GHG release during soil organic matter decomposition. As global temperatures rise, plastic fragmentation intensifies, and extreme weather events increase MP dispersion. Thus, a vicious cycle emerges between global warming and pollution, wherein both factors mutually reinforce each other, undermining natural systems and the planet’s climate stability. This article aims to compile and synthesize current scientific knowledge to provide an overview that supports the development of mitigation measures addressing the challenges posed by MPs in the context of global warming, through a discussion of the characteristics of various Earth compartments, including the atmospheric, sedimentary, aquatic, and biological ones.
Keywords
INTRODUCTION
Global warming refers to the increase in air temperature near the Earth’s surface that has occurred over the past one to two centuries, with projections indicating a rise of up to 2.5 °C by 2050. This phenomenon is generally attributed to elevated concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs), including CO2, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxides, ozone, and fluorinated gases; between 1951 and 2010, GHGs contributed to a global average temperature increase of 0.5-1.3 °C[1].
The plastics industry is a significant contributor to GHG emissions. Dokl et al., employing an optimized mathematical model that incorporates both historical trends and projected interventions, estimated that global plastic production will reach 884 million tonnes (MT) by 2050[2]. Plastic industries are already among the most important sources of industrial GHG emissions[3], representing a significant yet often overlooked driver of climate change.
Plastics are primarily produced from fossil fuels, utilized not only as raw materials (feedstocks) but also as sources of thermal energy throughout the production process. It is estimated that the plastics sector currently accounts for approximately 6%-8% of global oil consumption, with projections suggesting this could rise to 20% by 2050 if current trends persist[4]. In 2023 alone, combined emissions from plastic production and incineration amounted to approximately 1.8 billion metric tons of CO2-equivalent (CO2e), representing nearly 3.3% of total global emissions[5].
Each stage of the plastic life cycle is energy-intensive. For example, polymer production requires between 60 and 100 megajoules (MJ) per kilogram, releasing between 1.5 and 3 kilograms of CO2 for each kilogram of plastic produced[6]. Even after its useful life, plastic continues to contribute to global warming: when incinerated, it emits between 2 and 6 kilograms of CO2 per kilogram, and when exposed to sunlight, it can release methane and ethylene - both potent GHGs[7]. Although recycling can mitigate some of these impacts, global recycling rates remain low.
During their lifespan, plastics degrade through mechanical and chemical processes, including weathering and UV exposure, forming microplastics (MPs, < 5 mm) and nanoplastics (NPs, < 1 μm). These particles accumulate in all environmental compartments - atmosphere, freshwater and marine systems, and soils - where they can be transferred to living organisms. MPs originate not only from the breakdown of larger macroplastics but also from primary sources such as industrial abrasives, synthetic textile fibers, tire wear particles, and personal care products.
Predominant polymer types found in MP pollution include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). These polymers exhibit distinct environmental behaviors compared to their macroplastic counterparts due to their small size, large surface area-to-volume ratio, and enhanced reactivity. For example, while macroplastics often accumulate in visible litter, MPs are more readily dispersed by wind and water currents, infiltrate soils, and persist in remote regions such as polar ice and deep ocean sediments.
Moreover, MPs can adsorb and transport persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals more efficiently than macroplastics due to their increased surface area and aging-related surface oxidation. Their small size also facilitates ingestion and bioaccumulation across trophic levels, posing unique ecological and human health risks.
While it is well established that the plastics industry contributes to GHG emissions, some pathways through which MPs influence climate change have only recently begun to be explored[3,8]. Notably, Parvez et al. are among the few authors to attempt a comprehensive analysis of these interactions[8]. MPs may contribute to global warming directly by inhibiting Earth’s surface cooling or by generating GHGs, and indirectly by reducing oxygen levels in contexts where GHG mitigation could otherwise occur. The relationship between MPs and climate change is complex, involving multiple feedback mechanisms. This review aims to elucidate and integrate these intricate interactions.
EFFECTS OF PLASTICS ON GLOBAL WARMING
Plastics production, disposal and release of GHGs
GHGs are emitted at all stages of plastic production, distribution, and disposal[9], beginning with the extraction of fossil fuels, which constitute the basis for 99% of plastic materials[3]. The production of PVC alone generates approximately 7.83 kg of CO2e emissions throughout its manufacturing stages[10]. Global plastic production has already quadrupled over the past four decades, and if current trends persist, GHG emissions from plastics could account for up to 15% of the world’s carbon budget by 2050[11,12]. Currently, plastics are responsible for approximately 4% of global GHG emissions, with projections suggesting an increase to 6.5 gigatonnes (Gt) CO2e by 2050[6]. For comparison, China is currently responsible for a total release of 10 (Gt) CO2e, and the USA and EU together emit over 7 Gt.
The release of GHGs during plastic waste management primarily occurs through incineration and landfilling, which account for 39% and 31% of plastic waste disposal, respectively[13]. These practices result in emissions of approximately 96-322 MT CO2e from incineration and 16-17 MT CO2e from landfilling[14]. PVC releases the lowest amount of CO2 on combustion and PP the highest. Although recycling is widely regarded as the preferred waste management option, it also contributes to GHG emissions; for example, recycling PVC produces around 0.345 kg CO2e per kilogram of material[10], with global recycling-related emissions amounting to approximately 49 MT CO2e[14].
Substituting fossil fuel-based plastics with biodegradable alternatives - though often more expensive - could mitigate these emissions. Comparative analyses indicate that theoretical GHG emissions from biodegradable plastics are 13%-62% lower than those from conventional plastics, with the majority of reductions occurring during production and disposal stages[15].
As plastics degrade into micro- and NPs and disperse throughout ecosystems and the atmosphere, they continue to influence global warming. However, these interactions become increasingly convoluted and complex, involving multiple direct and indirect pathways.
MPs, oceanic cooling effects and atmospheric heating
The oceans function as a major heat sink[16], cooling the overlying atmosphere and absorbing approximately 90% of the excess heat generated by global warming. Most MPs are buoyant[17], reflecting solar radiation and thereby reducing heat absorption by ocean waters. Additionally, the presence of MPs suppresses turbulent mixing, causing plastic particles to accumulate at the surface, which further elevates their near-surface concentrations[18] and diminishes the capacity of the underlying water to absorb heat [Figure 1]. As global temperatures rise, the surface layer enriched with MPs thickens even more.
Figure 1. Reduction of turbulence and the consequent capacity of deeper waters to absorb heat.
MPs have been detected in the surface waters of nearly all of Earth’s oceans[19], often at concentrations higher than previously estimated - for example, ranging from 857 to 25,462 items per square kilometer in the Southern Bight of the North Sea[20]. Floating at the ocean-atmosphere interface, MPs alter the balance between reflection and absorption of solar radiation. Dark-colored MPs, for instance, enhance absorption, while all types can scatter and absorb shortwave solar radiation. These optical effects apply not only to MPs at the ocean surface but also to those present in the atmosphere[21]. Collectively, these processes contribute to rising temperatures within Earth’s atmospheric envelope.
The extent of this impact can be expressed through effective radiative forcing (ERF). Current estimates place the ERF of airborne MPs at 0.044 ± 0.399 milliwatts per square meter, assuming a uniform surface concentration of 1 MPs particle per cubic meter and a vertical distribution extending up to 10 kilometers altitude[22]. ERF is, however, difficult to determine, with fixed sea surface temperature calculations being 10%-30% higher than those using linear regression for all forcing agents and high variability shown when the effects of clouds are considered[23].
Effects of MPs on the ocean’s oxygenic production
The oceans cover approximately 70% of Earth’s surface, and the planktonic communities within them are responsible for producing 50%-80% of the world’s oxygen. MPs and their associated chemical additives adversely affect the metabolism and growth of phytoplankton, the most efficient photoautotrophs in marine ecosystems, which play a central role in carbon dioxide (CO2) uptake and oxygen (O2) release[24]. MPs exert direct toxic effects on these organisms by damaging cellular structures and inhibiting key physiological processes[9,25]. Furthermore, MPs can disrupt food absorption in marine organisms by mimicking natural prey, such as those typically ingested by zooplankton, thereby reducing zooplankton growth and grazing pressure on phytoplankton. This interference compromises the transfer of carbon to higher trophic levels and impairs the biological pump responsible for exporting carbon to the deep ocean[25].
Richon et al., employing a coupled physical-biogeochemical model, estimated that persistent MP pollution could diminish marine primary production by approximately 4%, corresponding to a reduction in zooplankton-mediated carbon export equivalent to 1 gigaton per year[25]. Similarly, Zhu et al. calculated that current MP pollution levels result in a 10.96%-12.84% decrease in chlorophyll content among photoautotrophs, along with a global reduction of 7.05%-12.12% in photosynthetic activity across terrestrial plants and aquatic algae[26]. These perturbations may substantially reduce atmospheric CO2 removal and contribute to ocean deoxygenation[27].
An additional concern is the formation of microbial biofilms on the surfaces of MPs, collectively termed the “plastisphere”[28]. This specialized habitat harbors aerobic microorganisms that consume oxygen for growth, thereby further reducing dissolved oxygen availability in marine environments.
Moreover, bacterioplankton, which constitute a crucial component of planktonic assemblages, are essential for the remineralization of organic matter, decomposing dead biomass and recycling carbon within marine ecosystems. MPs alter the composition and interactions of both bacterial and phytoplankton communities[29], thereby disrupting the structural and functional integrity of marine ecosystems, particularly their capacity to regulate carbon metabolism. The cumulative effects of MPs on marine ecosystems are therefore critical to the future stability of Earth’s climate and biogeochemical cycles.
Effects of MPs on C and N cycles in water and soil
In marine environments, MPs can alter carbon flows by disrupting the “biological pump”. Ingestion by aquatic organisms reduces organic food consumption and modifies fecal pellet production, forming lighter aggregates that sink more slowly[30]. MPs also attach to plankton and organic detritus, changing their size, density, and compactness, which reduces the downward flux of carbon and affects CO2 sequestration in deep oceans [Figure 2]. These particles alter sedimentation rates and microbial colonization, lowering biofilm formation and enzymatic degradation, which slows organic matter decomposition. Marine snow with MPs sinks about 1.2 times slower than uncontaminated aggregates[31,32], disrupting detrital C and N fluxes and sedimentary cycling. Figure 2 demonstrates that the presence of MPs and their assimilation by plankton affect the buoyancy of these organisms’ dead bodies, interrupting their transfer to anoxic zones of the seafloor.
Figure 2. The return of carbon to the atmosphere due to changes in plankton density associated with MPs incorporation. MPs: Microplastics.
Moreover, MPs impair marine phytoplankton photosynthesis - exposure to 250 mg·L-1 of MPs can reduce photosynthetic activity by 45%, while only 1 mg·L-1 of PS nanoparticles decreases fixed CO2 by 0.0023 ppm[33,34]. The resulting lower organic content intensifies oxygen depletion[35] and raises atmospheric CO2 levels[36]. MPs also reduce chlorophyll production[37] and primary productivity in fresh and marine waters[38]. Disruption of zooplankton ingestion of phytoplankton further weakens food webs, lowering oxygen and CO2 processing capacity.
Similar processes occur in freshwater ecosystems, where MPs increase GHG emissions from lakes, wetlands, and sediments[39-41]. In soils, MPs elevate CO2 emissions by (i) stimulating CO2-producing microbes; (ii) upregulating carbon cycling genes; (iii) lowering soil density (enhancing O2 diffusion); and (iv) increasing dissolved organic carbon availability[42]. MPs-derived DOM can generate 21%-576% more CO2 than natural DOM[43], and co-exposure with acid rain decreases soil N while boosting CO2 emissions[44]. Biodegradable plastics often intensify these effects.
MPs modify soil physicochemical properties depending on their size, shape, and composition, influencing microbial communities, enzyme activity, gene expression, and biodiversity. Typically, MPs increase N2O emissions[45] and can cause up to 92% higher CO2 outputs[46], while effects on CH4 remain uncertain[43]. High MP levels disturb ionic homeostasis and disrupt geochemical cycles and microbial activity[47-50]. In anaerobic soils, the decomposition of MPs can generate methane, adding to GHG emissions[51]. MPs also impair nitrifying and denitrifying bacteria metabolism[50] and may affect phosphorus cycling[51]. These changes harm soil structure and functioning, reducing crop yields[52,53]. Iqbal et al. estimate that soil MP pollution raises GHG emissions by 12%-60%, especially microfibers and PE, with notable impacts on CH4[54].
Besides affecting microbes, MPs directly harm plant growth and physiology[55,56], reducing CO2 uptake and intensifying warming[57]. Li et al. stress the toxic impacts on photosynthesis and carbon sequestration[58]. Thus, MPs in soil significantly accelerate climate change by increasing GHG emissions through multiple pathways.
Effects of MPs on ecosystems involved in GHG sequestration
MPs have emerged as a growing concern not only due to their ubiquity in the environment, but also because of their potential to disrupt key ecological processes that regulate climate, such as carbon sequestration. Terrestrial ecosystems play a critical role in capturing and storing atmospheric carbon, thereby mitigating global warming. However, the presence of MPs in these environments can interfere with their natural carbon dynamics. Below, we highlight several major ecological compartments, demonstrating how MPs may impair their ability to function as carbon sinks and, consequently, exacerbate climate change.
(a) Mangroves are coastal and humid wetlands that thrive in tropical and subtropical regions. They form important world ecosystems because of their high productivity and biodiversity, well-developed root systems, and high sedimentation rates[56], which are considered important for the preservation of biodiversity and global geochemical cycles[59]. The slow decomposition rates in their anoxic environments make them an effective carbon storage sink. Because of their ability to trap particulate matter, they are clearly potential sinks for MPs, although they are also sites of carbon storage[60,61]. MP levels in the mangrove sediments of Zhanjiang Bay, China, were shown to be about 1.6 times higher, at 351.65-891.67 items/kg, than those in nearby sediments, at 76.67-589.17 items/kg[62]. It is expected that MPs will reduce the efficacy of mangroves to sequester carbon[63] by altering soil structure, limiting root development, and disrupting sediment stability, which collectively hinder organic carbon burial and storage. MPs also affect plant photosynthesis and metabolism[55], thus reducing CO2 utilization and contributing to global warming.
(b) Seagrass bed ecosystems are among the most efficient natural carbon sinks, playing a vital role in mitigating climate change by sequestering significant amounts of atmospheric CO2 in their biomass and underlying sediments. However, in recent years, the increasing prevalence of plastic and MP pollution has emerged as a critical threat, potentially disrupting their carbon storage capacity, nutrient cycling, and biodiversity support.
Recent evidence indicates that MPs can significantly reduce the carbon sequestration potential of these coastal blue carbon ecosystems. For instance, Hou et al. (2024) demonstrated that MP contamination alters sediment properties and root morphology, leading to a decline in organic carbon burial in seagrass beds[64]. Likewise, Molin et al. (2023) found that MPs are associated with reduced respiration rates in Zostera marina and its epiphytic communities, indicating impaired metabolic functioning that could weaken carbon assimilation and storage processes[65]. Furthermore, Nugraha et al. (2025) showed that MP exposure negatively affects the growth and physiological health of tropical seagrass (Enhalus acoroides) seedlings, which may hinder meadow regeneration and long-term carbon sink stability[66].
Collectively, these studies highlight that MP pollution poses a multifaceted risk to seagrass ecosystems by interfering with plant health, sediment dynamics, and biogeochemical cycles. Such impacts not only undermine local biodiversity but may also compromise the vital ecosystem service of carbon sequestration that seagrass meadows provide on a global scale. Expanding our understanding of these interactions is essential for developing targeted mitigation strategies and effective coastal management policies.
(c) Peat-forming wetlands: These include freshwater, brackish and saline areas that are permanently or periodically flooded. They may be specially constructed for removing pollutants from wastewater[67]. They act as carbon sinks, similar to mangroves, and, again similarly, they trap MPs[68]. Mora-Gomez et al. found that PVC-MPs increased CO2 and CH4 production from peat soil, with changes in the microbial community composition that contributed to the alterations in the carbon cycle[69]. Wetlands of all types are important contributors to climate control on Earth and are under threat from the increasing levels of MPs.
Contribution of MPs to atmospheric dust and cloud formation
Only recently has it been recognized that MPs are present at significant levels in the atmosphere[70-72], where they can potentially inhibit the cooling of Earth’s surface. Atmospheric MPs exert radiative effects - both absorption and scattering - across longwave and shortwave radiation spectra, contributing to radiative forcing, which has been estimated at 0.044 ± 0.399 milliwatts per square meter[21]. However, the magnitude of this effect depends on surface albedo; Yang et al. argue that atmospheric MPs exert minimal radiative forcing over water bodies and land covered by forests, snow, or ice, but potentially more substantial impacts over grasslands and bare soils[73].
Additionally, during the photodegradation of MPs, photochemical ozone is produced[74], further interfering with the regulation of Earth’s temperature by contributing to GHG dynamics[75]. Ferrero et al. identified similar types and concentrations of MPs in both the open Baltic Sea and the overlying atmosphere, indicating dynamic exchanges between these compartments, a pattern not observed in the port of Gdansk[76]. They calculated turnover times for MPs ranging from 0.3 to 90 h, depending on particle size, illustrating the rapid atmospheric cycling of MPs in marine environments.
Airborne MPs have been detected in cloud water samples collected from high-altitude regions, confirming their role in cloud microphysical processes. MPs can act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) - microscopic particles that facilitate the condensation of water vapor into cloud droplets - thus promoting cloud formation[67]. This process becomes possible after MPs undergo environmental aging, such as photochemical weathering, which increases their hydrophilicity and enhances their ability to nucleate water droplets[48]. The role of MPs as CCN is critical to cloud formation and, consequently, the functioning of Earth’s climate system, occurring over both marine and freshwater bodies[77,78].
The presence of MPs in the atmosphere has the potential to influence cloud microphysical properties, precipitation patterns, and regional radiative balances, collectively contributing to both local and global climate changes[79]. McErlich et al. provide a detailed analysis of the participation of MPs in cloud formation processes, including their role in marine spray production, which also scatters solar radiation and influences global warming[79].
MPs can act not only as CCN but also as ice-nucleating particles (INPs), impacting heterogeneous ice nucleation and thereby modulating cloud formation processes[48,80]. Once aged through environmental processes such as photochemical weathering, these particles can effectively interact with atmospheric water vapor, altering cloud microphysics and optical properties. These interactions influence cloud albedo, precipitation efficiency, and cloud lifetime, thereby affecting Earth’s radiation budget and climate[48,80]. The cumulative effects of MPs as both CCN and INPs underscore their capacity to alter atmospheric processes and climate systems on regional and global scales. Further research is essential to quantify these impacts and incorporate them into advanced climate models[48,80].
The potential of MPs to alter cloud formation and precipitation patterns carries significant implications for the global climate system, given that clouds play a pivotal role in modulating Earth’s energy balance[81]. Generally, clouds exert a net cooling effect; however, they can also induce shortwave warming, particularly when thin[82]. As MPs continue to disperse throughout the atmosphere, they may contribute to alterations in weather patterns, including more frequent extreme weather events and shifts in regional rainfall distributions. These impacts are particularly concerning in urban areas, where the combined influence of MPs, aerosols, and other pollutants could exacerbate climate change effects and intensify regional climate feedback mechanisms[80].
Degradation of MPs and global warming
The degradation of plastics and MPs in the environment through natural processes - such as photooxidation, chemical weathering, and microbial action - results in the release of GHGs including CO2, CH4, N2O, and ethylene[7,83,84]. Zhang et al., in laboratory experiments, demonstrated that the addition of PET to freshwater sediments increases the emissions of CO2 and N2O, while simultaneously stimulating the proliferation of microorganisms capable of degrading complex organic materials, thereby further enhancing CO2 release[40].
Biodegradable plastics also contribute to GHG emissions during their decomposition. Microbial degradation of these accessible plastic substrates leads to significant CO2 production[85-87]. Wang et al., monitoring CH4 and CO2 emissions in paddy soils incubated with MPs derived from biodegradable plastics, employed Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to detect increases of 92-fold and 213-fold in CH4 and CO2 concentrations, respectively, after just 7 days of incubation[88]. Soils and sediments contaminated with such MPs not only emit higher levels of GHGs but also generate increased amounts of labile dissolved organic matter[89]. These conditions stimulate microbial diversity[90] and activity[91], thereby amplifying the biogeochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen.
The pivotal role of microbial community composition in GHG emissions from biodegradable plastics was highlighted by Shen et al., who demonstrated that the presence of sulfanilamide in agricultural ditch sediment microcosms containing PE or polylactic acid (PLA) selectively increased GHG emissions from the biodegradable plastics but not from conventional plastics[92].
Biodegradable mulches are often promoted as environmentally preferable alternatives to conventional PE-based mulches in agriculture. However, Hao et al. reported that biodegradable mulches, such as PLA and polybutylene adipate terephthalate (PBAT), generated substantial quantities of MPs - 6.7 × 104 and 37.2 × 104 items/m2, respectively - over an 18-month burial period, whereas the PE mulch showed no degradation within the same timeframe[87]. Corresponding CO2 emissions during this period were 0.58, 0.74, 0.99, and 0.86 C/kg for the control, PE, PLA, and PBAT treatments, respectively.
Although biodegradable plastics are often considered more sustainable than their fossil fuel-based counterparts, accumulating evidence clearly indicates that their environmental degradation still poses significant risks to the Earth’s climate system through the emission of GHGs and the generation of secondary pollutants such as MPs.
Contribution of MPs to polar ice melt and climate feedback mechanisms
The incorporation of MPs, with their light-absorbing properties, into polar ice contributes to its melting; Evangeliou et al. discuss this effect merely for tyre-wear particles in the Arctic regions[93], while Corami et al. examine the impact of MPs in polar regions and glaciers worldwide[94]. MP pollution, however, although often addressed as a localized contamination issue, is deeply intertwined with global climate processes. Even in remote and seemingly pristine regions such as the Arctic and Antarctic, the effects of this form of pollution underscore the scope and complexity of ongoing environmental change, and ultimately, contribute to global warming. In fact, the warming of the Arctic over the last 4 decades has been almost 4 times that of the rest of the Earth[95].
The presence of MPs in polar regions has environmental implications that go beyond local ecosystem contamination, indirectly contributing to the melting of polar ice caps[96]. One of the main mechanisms involved is the alteration of albedo - the surface’s ability to reflect solar radiation. When MPs are transported through the atmosphere or ocean currents and deposited on snow and ice, they darken the surface, reducing its reflectivity [Figure 3]. More solar energy is absorbed than reflected, accelerating the melting process[97]. This phenomenon functions as positive climate feedback, as the melting ice exposes darker surfaces, such as water or soil, which in turn absorb even more heat, intensifying local warming.
Figure 3. Rising temperatures and the resulting increase in ice melt due to MP-induced sunlight absorption. MP: Microplastic.
The accelerated melting of polar ice caps has the potential to disrupt global ocean circulation significantly, particularly the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). This large-scale component of thermohaline circulation plays a critical role in redistributing heat and regulating climate patterns, as well as sustaining marine productivity[98,99]. It is one of the mechanisms responsible for removing light-density MPs from warm surfaces to cool deep marine waters, and thus part of the Earth’s response to anthropogenic forcing[100]. As vast volumes of freshwater are released into the North Atlantic from the melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet and Arctic Sea ice, surface ocean salinity decreases, reducing water density[100,101]. This freshwater-induced stratification inhibits the sinking of cold, saline water, a key process driving the deepwater formation that powers the AMOC [Figure 4][101,102] - and thus potentially interferes with heat distribution and climate regulation.
Figure 4. A simplified schematic representation of the AMOC. AMOC: Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation.
The intensification of polar ice melt, aided by MPs, may thus compromise not only high-latitude ecosystems but also the stability of global thermohaline circulation. By altering the salinity-driven density gradients that govern deepwater formation, freshwater influx from melting ice disrupts the physical engine that drives large-scale oceanic heat and nutrient transport. A weakened AMOC could reduce nutrient upwelling, impair carbon sequestration, and disturb ecosystem dynamics at multiple trophic levels, particularly in polar and subpolar biomes[103,104]. Cascading climatic consequences may include rising sea levels along the North Atlantic coasts, shifts in tropical monsoon systems, and increased regional climate variability.
Currently, there is no clear evidence that MPs are altering seawater density to the extent of impacting large-scale oceanographic patterns, such as thermohaline circulation or oceanic gyres. However, at local and regional scales, and through indirect biophysical and geochemical effects, MPs can alter key processes in physical and biological oceanography, particularly in coastal zones, estuaries, and convergence regions[105].
MPs in suspension in the polar regions can be ingested by or adsorbed onto the surface of phytoplankton cells, as described in Section “Effects of MPs on the ocean’s oxygenic production”, causing cytotoxic effects, oxidative stress, and impairing photosynthesis[106]. These physiological impacts directly affect growth rates and primary production efficiency, potentially altering the taxonomic composition of the seasonal blooms typical of these regions. Given the low functional diversity and trophic synchronization characteristic of these ecosystems, changes in the structure of these blooms can ripple through the food chain, from zooplankton to large predators such as whales and seabirds[107].
Finally, specific habitats, such as the interface between ice and water - where ice algae concentrate - may also suffer contamination, with ecological impacts that are still not well understood but could potentially be severe.
NATURAL DEGRADATION OF PLASTICS AND ASSOCIATED CLIMATE IMPACTS
The degradation of plastic waste in the environment is an increasingly relevant, yet often overlooked, source of GHG emissions[108]. While most studies emphasize the end-of-life emissions associated with incineration and landfilling, plastics that persist in natural environments - such as oceans, rivers, and soils - also undergo degradation processes that release CO2 and other GHGs over time.
Natural degradation occurs primarily through photochemical oxidation, thermal weathering, mechanical fragmentation, and, to a lesser extent, microbial biodegradation[109]. Under sunlight exposure, especially in terrestrial environments, ultraviolet radiation breaks down polymer chains, generating smaller fragments and releasing carbon-based gases. In aquatic systems, photodegradation is less efficient due to limited light penetration, but it still contributes to the transformation of macroplastics into micro- and NPs, increasing their surface area and potential for microbial colonization[110]. Although biodegradation remains slow and limited in most environments, some bacterial and fungal strains have demonstrated the capacity to mineralize specific polymers, producing CO2 under aerobic conditions or CH4 in anaerobic contexts.
Recent studies estimate that the natural degradation of environmental plastics contributes approximately 0.02 to 0.04 gigatons of CO2e annually. While this is a relatively small fraction of global anthropogenic emissions, it represents a growing source of carbon flux, particularly as plastic waste continues to accumulate in ecosystems worldwide[108].
Life cycle climate impact of major polymers
The total climate impact of plastic materials must be assessed through a life cycle perspective[4]. The carbon footprint associated with different polymer types varies considerably depending on raw material extraction, processing energy, transportation, usage, and disposal pathways. For example, PET widely used in beverage bottles, typically releases around 2.3 kg CO2e per kg produced, while HDPE (high-density polyethylene), common in containers, emits approximately 1.8 kg CO2e per kg[5]. PS and PVC have even higher footprints, largely due to their additive content and limited recyclability[111]. In contrast, PLA, a biodegradable bioplastic derived from renewable sources, emits between 0.5 and 0.9 kg CO2e per kg, offering a significantly reduced climate burden, especially when composted under controlled conditions[112,113].
Nonetheless, the lower environmental impact of bio-based plastics depends heavily on waste management systems that support their degradation. Without industrial composting or proper separation, these materials may still contribute to persistent pollution and GHG emissions.
Contextualizing emissions in a national framework
Although the estimated 0.02-0.04 Gt CO2e per year released from plastic degradation in the environment may appear modest at a global scale, contextualizing these values highlights their relevance. This emission range is comparable to the annual carbon footprint of entire nations such as Uruguay or Iceland. Moreover, it represents about 2%-4% of Brazil’s total GHG emissions from waste-related sectors, which were estimated at 0.92 Gt CO2e in 2022[114]. These figures underscore that plastic pollution is not only a long-term ecological threat but also an active, measurable contributor to climate change, especially in regions with poor waste infrastructure.
EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING ON MPS
As discussed above, MPs can contribute to global warming in several ways. The changes accompanying climate change can also lead to increases in MP formation and dispersal [Figure 5], in a cycling of interactions. Chang et al., using regression random forest models incorporating multiple MP characteristics, such as concentration and size distribution, calculated that a 10 °C increase in world temperature would raise MP concentration from 12,465.34 ± 68,603.87 to 13,387.17 ± 60,692.96 particles/m3[115]. Among the characteristics analyzed, MP concentration was identified as the most influential factor. However, the physical properties of MPs are modified by rising temperatures, increasing the probability of their fragmentation and thus boosting their numbers in the environment[116], while climate change-induced free radicals in soil and water affect the local environmental conditions, influencing the distribution, migration, and microbial interactions of MPs[117]. Hence, the exact prediction of the relationship between MP concentration and temperature increase is not easy.
Figure 5. Changes accompanying climate change leading to MP formation and dispersal
Extreme weather events such as storms and tornadoes lead to increased fragmentation and dispersion of plastics[118,119]. According to the latter authors’ bibliographic analysis, floods and storms are currently the main natural phenomena contributing to MP redistribution (28% of total), with waves lifting and mixing the high concentrations of sediment MPs to the open sea and floods transporting them across the Earth’s surface. Once the MP stores of deep ocean sediments have been raised, the authors’ analysis found that winds and tides are responsible for 21% of further redistribution, with monsoons and typhoons close behind at 18% each. Dust storms and weather phenomena affected by global warming appear in Belioka and Achilias’s analysis at rates of single figures[120].
Predicted rising sea levels will also increase MP dispersal, and, together, flooding and MPs can reduce the photosynthetic activity of plants[125], allowing the continuance of increased CO2 levels. Glacial thawing will add to rising sea levels and release MPs, thus increasing both local MP concentrations and their dispersal. Obbard et al. showed that ice cores from the Arctic Ocean contained 38-234 MPs·m-3, higher than the numbers found in surface waters[126], while, in 2025, Jones-Williams et al., using more refined FTIR techniques, identified even higher MP levels (73-3,099 MPs·m-3) in snow from remote Antarctic camps[127]. NPs have been detected in ice from Greenland and Antarctica, using a novel method based on Thermal Desorption - Proton Transfer Reaction - Mass Spectrometry[128]. Various classes of plastic, including tyre-wear particles from a firn core (also known as “old snow”) from Greenland, were detected, the average concentrations being 13.2 ng/mL from Greenland and 52.3 ng/mL for Antarctic Sea ice. Odic et al., using model particles, showed that high-density MP concentrations were almost 3 times higher in soft frazil ice (loose millimeter or sub-millimeter ice crystals formed in turbulent conditions) than in underlying water, but that NP concentrations were slightly lower, similar to those of sea salts[129]. The higher concentrations of NPs in unfrozen than frozen seawater have been noted or modeled by other workers[130-132]. Odic et al. suggested that NPs could be enriched in pockets and channels in the ice, places in which salts concentrate, and microalgae are found[129]. There is, however, little information on NPs and their, possibly different, roles in global warming and the ways in which they are affected by climate change.
The problems of release of MPs from frozen water to the future environment were discussed by Gaylarde et al.[96]. MPs in ice would contribute to its melting by increasing the absorption of solar radiation[20] and thus increasing the temperature. This increased temperature results in the release of MPs and an increase in their atmospheric concentrations, further increasing air temperatures, as explained previously. Thus, again, we see the circularity of the relationship between MPs and global warming.
CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES
Currently, MP pollution is strongly influenced by climatic factors and is expected to intensify with the increasing frequency of extreme weather events. Remote regions, such as the polar areas - once relatively unaffected - are now facing a growing threat of plastic contamination driven by climate change. Global warming and MP pollution act synergistically: the light-absorbing properties of MPs contribute to the accelerated melting of polar ice caps. In turn, this melting alters ocean salinity, temperature, and density, influencing the aggregation and dispersal of MPs.
In addition to accelerating global warming, MPs also become more prevalent in aquatic environments as temperatures rise, creating a continuous feedback loop. The interdependence between plastic pollution and climate change is clear: increased UV radiation and higher temperatures promote the release of MPs into water bodies, while elevated MP concentrations further destabilize climate systems. Shifts in ocean currents and extreme weather events also enhance the fragmentation and redistribution of MPs globally.
There have been several global agreements and policies published in attempts to control the future levels and effects of plastics, including MPs. Among them, the Paris Agreement, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, aimed to achieve net carbon neutrality by 2025 and formally acknowledged the link between plastic pollution and climate change. However, the issue extends far beyond climate change alone. MPs impact not only biogeochemical cycles, GHG emissions, and the Earth’s thermal balance, but also disrupt the metabolism of all living organisms, including humans.
Importantly, MPs influence GHG emissions through complex biological pathways, including altering microbial community structure and function in soils, freshwater lakes, and mangrove sediments. These microbial shifts can modify processes such as methane production and nitrogen cycling, thereby affecting overall GHG fluxes. Furthermore, MPs impair plant growth and physiological processes in these environments, reducing photosynthetic efficiency and carbon assimilation. Such biological disruptions compromise the capacity of these ecosystems to sequester carbon effectively, exacerbating climate change feedbacks.
It is important to highlight that much of the evidence discussed in this article is based on data derived from modeling approaches, which, while valuable, have inherent limitations regarding the quantitative projection of results. Nevertheless, the qualitative nature of these findings remains significant and should not be disregarded.
Despite growing global awareness of this imminent threat, effective and integrated strategies have yet to be implemented. Addressing the complex and circular relationship between MPs and climate change requires urgent, interdisciplinary action to protect the health of the planet. Recognizing the multifaceted ways MPs influence GHG emissions - both through physical-chemical mechanisms and by altering microbial and plant processes in critical ecosystems - is essential for designing mitigation strategies that safeguard the Earth’s climate system.
DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Conception, writing, revision, and preparation of the figures for the article: da Fonseca, E. M.; Gaylarde, C. C.
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.
Financial support and sponsorship
None.
Conflicts of interest
Both authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval and consent to participate
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Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Copyright
© The Author(s) 2025.
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