Microplastics and nanoplastics in ecosystems: mechanisms, microbial disruption, and functional consequences
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Microplastics (MPs; 1 μm-5 mm) and nanoplastics (NPs; < 100 nm) pose escalating threats to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems due to their bioavailability and charge-dependent interactions. This work highlights NPs’ effects on iron/nitrogen cycling, plant physiology, and ecosystem multifunctionality, emphasizing mechanistic insights from recent studies.
CHARGE-DEPENDENT BIOACCUMULATION AND CELLULAR TOXICITY
Positively charged amine-functionalized polystyrene (PS-NH2) nanoparticles exhibit significantly higher foliar uptake than negatively charged sulfonate-functionalized polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-SO3H) due to electrostatic attraction to plant cuticles, as evidenced by lower contact angles; once absorbed, these nanoparticles (0.45-4.5 μg; ~70 nm in diameter) translocate to roots via phloem transport, with 3.5% of foliar-applied PS-Eu NPs detected in root tissues
The charge-dependent uptake by plants represents a critical initial exposure pathway; however, the ensuing impact on biogeochemical cycles unfolds primarily through NP-induced disruptions to microbial metabolism. NP internalization depletes intracellular Fe2+ by ~25%, triggering a compensatory 9.7-fold increase in siderophore synthesis to chelate extracellular Fe3+. This iron starvation inactivates the Fur metalloregulator, subsequently derepressing siderophore transport genes and diverting cellular energy resources away from nitrogen metabolism pathways [Figure 1]. This cascade illustrates how NPs fundamentally rewire microbial metabolic priorities - shifting energy allocation from ecologically critical nitrogen transformation processes toward survival-driven iron acquisition[2]. The findings establish iron dyshomeostasis as a pivotal mechanism underpinning NPs’ inhibition of biogeochemical cycling, highlighting a previously underestimated pathway through which nanopollutants compromise ecosystem functionality[3,4]. The internalization of NPs via endocytosis, visually confirmed, induces membrane damage, as evidenced by elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, facilitating iron ion leakage and disrupting cellular homeostasis. NP adsorption triggers reactive oxygen species generation, causing oxidative stress that impairs iron-dependent enzymes (e.g., nitrate reductase).
Figure 1. The mechanism of microbial siderophore transport and regulation in response to NPs exposure. This figure is quoted with permission from Zhao et al. 2024[2] Copyright © 2024 Elsevier. NPs: Nanoplastics.
METABOLIC INHIBITION AND NUTRIENT CYCLE DYSREGULATION
MPs significantly disrupt nutrient cycling across ecosystems through multiple pathways. In marine environments, they trigger a “Matthew effect” in diatoms - enhancing nitrogen assimilation under nitrogen-replete conditions while suppressing it under nitrogen-limited conditions by altering nitrate transporter activity and enzyme regulation [e.g., nitrate reductase (NR), nitrite reductase (NIR), glutamine synthetase (GS)] [Figure 2]. Wetlands experience reduced nitrogen removal efficiency (up to 41.3% decline) due to MP-induced substrate clogging, altered biofilm composition, and oxygen transfer limitations that shift microbial communities toward denitrifiers (e.g., Thauera, Thiobacillus) and suppress nitrifiers (Nitrospira, Nitrosomonas). In agroecosystems, MPs [polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE)] reduce plant biomass (up to 53%), redistribute photoassimilated carbon toward soil and CO2 emissions, and increase microbial biomass while altering carbon use efficiency and enzyme activities (e.g., suppression of β-glucosidase). MPs also adsorb metals and organic pollutants, further complicating nutrient fluxes across terrestrial and aquatic interfaces[5-8]. Moreover, MP concentrations in various natural environments are frequently reported, and with the continuous accumulation of external inputs, these concentrations are expected to increase. Collectively, these disruptions demonstrate that MPs restructure nutrient cycling pathways by altering microbial functionality, plant-soil interactions, and biogeochemical equilibria across marine, wetland, and agricultural systems.
Figure 2. Molecular mechanisms of nitrogen assimilation mediated by MPs. This figure is quoted with permission from Kang et al. 2023[5] Copyright © 2023 Elsevier. MPs: Microplastics.
IMPACTS OF MICRO/NANOPLASTICS ON FOOD WEB STRUCTURE
MPs significantly alter aquatic food web structures through trophic transfer and bioaccumulation dynamics, as evidenced by studies across freshwater ecosystems. In shallow lakes, MPs reduce zooplankton assimilation efficiency via food dilution, impairing grazing pressure on phytoplankton and lowering critical phosphorus loading (CPL) thresholds by 20%-40% by 2100 under current plastic production trends. This destabilizes ecosystems, increasing risks of regime shifts to turbid states [Figure 3][9]. The model simulated the impact of MP ingestion via food dilution across a lake food web, using MP-to-food ratios (rMPF) from 10-3 to 103, and showed reduced resilience through a lowered CPL. In fish, MPs translocate from ingested prey to gastrointestinal tracts, fillets, and livers, with fibers (72% polyester) dominating across tissues. No biomagnification occurs across trophic levels; however, growth dilution concentrates MPs per unit weight in smaller fish, suggesting transitory excretion rather than long-term accumulation[10]. Riverine apex predators such as Eurasian dippers ingest ~200 MPs/day from contaminated macroinvertebrates, transferring particles to offspring via provisioning, with urbanization driving spatial heterogeneity in exposure[11].
MPs significantly alter aquatic food web structures through trophic transfer and bioaccumulation dynamics, as evidenced by studies across freshwater ecosystems. In shallow lakes, MPs reduce zooplankton assimilation efficiency via food dilution, impairing grazing pressure on phytoplankton and lowering critical phosphorus loading (CPL) thresholds by 20%-40% by 2100 under current plastic production trends. This destabilizes ecosystems, increasing risks of regime shifts to turbid states [Figure 3][9]. The model simulated the impact of MP ingestion via food dilution across a lake food web, using MP-to-food ratios (rMPF) from 10-3 to 103, and showed reduced resilience through a lowered CPL. In fish, MPs translocate from ingested prey to gastrointestinal tracts, fillets, and livers, with fibers (72% polyester) dominating across tissues. No biomagnification occurs across trophic levels; however, growth dilution concentrates MPs per unit weight in smaller fish, suggesting transitory excretion rather than long-term accumulation[10]. Riverine apex predators such as Eurasian dippers ingest ~200 MPs/day from contaminated macroinvertebrates, transferring particles to offspring via provisioning, with urbanization driving spatial heterogeneity in exposure[11].
MPs significantly alter aquatic food web structures through trophic transfer and bioaccumulation dynamics, as evidenced by studies across freshwater ecosystems. In shallow lakes, MPs reduce zooplankton assimilation efficiency via food dilution, impairing grazing pressure on phytoplankton and lowering critical phosphorus loading (CPL) thresholds by 20%-40% by 2100 under current plastic production trends. This destabilizes ecosystems, increasing risks of regime shifts to turbid states [Figure 3][9]. The model simulated the impact of MP ingestion via food dilution across a lake food web, using MP-to-food ratios (rMPF) from 10-3 to 103, and showed reduced resilience through a lowered CPL. In fish, MPs translocate from ingested prey to gastrointestinal tracts, fillets, and livers, with fibers (72% polyester) dominating across tissues. No biomagnification occurs across trophic levels; however, growth dilution concentrates MPs per unit weight in smaller fish, suggesting transitory excretion rather than long-term accumulation[10]. Riverine apex predators such as Eurasian dippers ingest ~200 MPs/day from contaminated macroinvertebrates, transferring particles to offspring via provisioning, with urbanization driving spatial heterogeneity in exposure[11].
MPs significantly alter aquatic food web structures through trophic transfer and bioaccumulation dynamics, as evidenced by studies across freshwater ecosystems. In shallow lakes, MPs reduce zooplankton assimilation efficiency via food dilution, impairing grazing pressure on phytoplankton and lowering critical phosphorus loading (CPL) thresholds by 20%-40% by 2100 under current plastic production trends. This destabilizes ecosystems, increasing risks of regime shifts to turbid states [Figure 3][9]. The model simulated the impact of MP ingestion via food dilution across a lake food web, using MP-to-food ratios (rMPF) from 10-3 to 103, and showed reduced resilience through a lowered CPL. In fish, MPs translocate from ingested prey to gastrointestinal tracts, fillets, and livers, with fibers (72% polyester) dominating across tissues. No biomagnification occurs across trophic levels; however, growth dilution concentrates MPs per unit weight in smaller fish, suggesting transitory excretion rather than long-term accumulation[10]. Riverine apex predators such as Eurasian dippers ingest ~200 MPs/day from contaminated macroinvertebrates, transferring particles to offspring via provisioning, with urbanization driving spatial heterogeneity in exposure[11].
MPs significantly alter aquatic food web structures through trophic transfer and bioaccumulation dynamics, as evidenced by studies across freshwater ecosystems. In shallow lakes, MPs reduce zooplankton assimilation efficiency via food dilution, impairing grazing pressure on phytoplankton and lowering critical phosphorus loading (CPL) thresholds by 20%-40% by 2100 under current plastic production trends. This destabilizes ecosystems, increasing risks of regime shifts to turbid states [Figure 3][9]. The model simulated the impact of MP ingestion via food dilution across a lake food web, using MP-to-food ratios (rMPF) from 10-3 to 103, and showed reduced resilience through a lowered CPL. In fish, MPs translocate from ingested prey to gastrointestinal tracts, fillets, and livers, with fibers (72% polyester) dominating across tissues. No biomagnification occurs across trophic levels; however, growth dilution concentrates MPs per unit weight in smaller fish, suggesting transitory excretion rather than long-term accumulation[10]. Riverine apex predators such as Eurasian dippers ingest ~200 MPs/day from contaminated macroinvertebrates, transferring particles to offspring via provisioning, with urbanization driving spatial heterogeneity in exposure[11].
MPs significantly alter aquatic food web structures through trophic transfer and bioaccumulation dynamics, as evidenced by studies across freshwater ecosystems. In shallow lakes, MPs reduce zooplankton assimilation efficiency via food dilution, impairing grazing pressure on phytoplankton and lowering critical phosphorus loading (CPL) thresholds by 20%-40% by 2100 under current plastic production trends. This destabilizes ecosystems, increasing risks of regime shifts to turbid states [Figure 3][9]. The model simulated the impact of MP ingestion via food dilution across a lake food web, using MP-to-food ratios (rMPF) from 10-3 to 103, and showed reduced resilience through a lowered CPL. In fish, MPs translocate from ingested prey to gastrointestinal tracts, fillets, and livers, with fibers (72% polyester) dominating across tissues. No biomagnification occurs across trophic levels; however, growth dilution concentrates MPs per unit weight in smaller fish, suggesting transitory excretion rather than long-term accumulation[10]. Riverine apex predators such as Eurasian dippers ingest ~200 MPs/day from contaminated macroinvertebrates, transferring particles to offspring via provisioning, with urbanization driving spatial heterogeneity in exposure[11].
MPs significantly alter aquatic food web structures through trophic transfer and bioaccumulation dynamics, as evidenced by studies across freshwater ecosystems. In shallow lakes, MPs reduce zooplankton assimilation efficiency via food dilution, impairing grazing pressure on phytoplankton and lowering critical phosphorus loading (CPL) thresholds by 20%-40% by 2100 under current plastic production trends. This destabilizes ecosystems, increasing risks of regime shifts to turbid states [Figure 3][9]. The model simulated the impact of MP ingestion via food dilution across a lake food web, using MP-to-food ratios (rMPF) from 10-3 to 103, and showed reduced resilience through a lowered CPL. In fish, MPs translocate from ingested prey to gastrointestinal tracts, fillets, and livers, with fibers (72% polyester) dominating across tissues. No biomagnification occurs across trophic levels; however, growth dilution concentrates MPs per unit weight in smaller fish, suggesting transitory excretion rather than long-term accumulation[10]. Riverine apex predators such as Eurasian dippers ingest ~200 MPs/day from contaminated macroinvertebrates, transferring particles to offspring via provisioning, with urbanization driving spatial heterogeneity in exposure[11].
MPs significantly alter aquatic food web structures through trophic transfer and bioaccumulation dynamics, as evidenced by studies across freshwater ecosystems. In shallow lakes, MPs reduce zooplankton assimilation efficiency via food dilution, impairing grazing pressure on phytoplankton and lowering critical phosphorus loading (CPL) thresholds by 20%-40% by 2100 under current plastic production trends. This destabilizes ecosystems, increasing risks of regime shifts to turbid states [Figure 3][9]. The model simulated the impact of MP ingestion via food dilution across a lake food web, using MP-to-food ratios (rMPF) from 10-3 to 103, and showed reduced resilience through a lowered CPL. In fish, MPs translocate from ingested prey to gastrointestinal tracts, fillets, and livers, with fibers (72% polyester) dominating across tissues. No biomagnification occurs across trophic levels; however, growth dilution concentrates MPs per unit weight in smaller fish, suggesting transitory excretion rather than long-term accumulation[10]. Riverine apex predators such as Eurasian dippers ingest ~200 MPs/day from contaminated macroinvertebrates, transferring particles to offspring via provisioning, with urbanization driving spatial heterogeneity in exposure[11].
MPs significantly alter aquatic food web structures through trophic transfer and bioaccumulation dynamics, as evidenced by studies across freshwater ecosystems. In shallow lakes, MPs reduce zooplankton assimilation efficiency via food dilution, impairing grazing pressure on phytoplankton and lowering critical phosphorus loading (CPL) thresholds by 20%-40% by 2100 under current plastic production trends. This destabilizes ecosystems, increasing risks of regime shifts to turbid states [Figure 3][9]. The model simulated the impact of MP ingestion via food dilution across a lake food web, using MP-to-food ratios (rMPF) from 10-3 to 103, and showed reduced resilience through a lowered CPL. In fish, MPs translocate from ingested prey to gastrointestinal tracts, fillets, and livers, with fibers (72% polyester) dominating across tissues. No biomagnification occurs across trophic levels; however, growth dilution concentrates MPs per unit weight in smaller fish, suggesting transitory excretion rather than long-term accumulation[10]. Riverine apex predators such as Eurasian dippers ingest ~200 MPs/day from contaminated macroinvertebrates, transferring particles to offspring via provisioning, with urbanization driving spatial heterogeneity in exposure[11].
Figure 3. Modeling Decreased Resilience of Shallow Lake Ecosystems toward Eutrophication due to Microplastic Ingestion across the Food Web. This figure is quoted with permission from Kang et al. 2019[9] Copyright © 2019 American Chemical Society.
IMPACTS OF MICRO/NANOPLASTICS ON ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONS
MPs and NPs significantly disrupt ecosystem functionality across terrestrial and aquatic environments. The study exposed constructed wetland microcosms planted with cattails (Typha latifolia) and filled with gravel to polystyrene NPs (60-70 nm) at concentrations of 0, 10, and 1,000 μg/L in synthetic wastewater [200 mg/L COD (COD = chemical oxygen demand), 30 mg/L TN (TN = total nitrogen)] for 180 days with a 5-day hydraulic retention time to assess impacts on nitrogen removal processes. In constructed wetlands, NPs (e.g., polystyrene) inhibit microbial nitrogen removal by penetrating cell membranes, suppressing electron transport activity, and reducing abundances of nitrifying (e.g., Nitrosomonas) and denitrifying bacteria (e.g., Thauera), ultimately decreasing total nitrogen removal efficiency by 29.5%-40.6% [Figure 4][6,12]. Terrestrially, MPs alter plant community structure by favoring invasive species over facilitative plants, while reducing soil bulk density and impairing water regulation[13]. They also adsorb co-pollutants (e.g., phthalates), synergistically inhibiting plant photosynthesis and soil enzyme activities[14]. These perturbations cascade through nutrient cycles, microbial diversity, and trophic interactions, threatening ecosystem stability.
Figure 4. Nanoplastics disturb nitrogen removal in constructed wetlands: responses of microbes and macrophytes. This figure is quoted with permission from Yang et al. 2020[12] Copyright © 2019 American Chemical Society. MDA: Malonaldehyde; SOD: superoxide dismutase; POD: peroxidase; CAT: catalase; PS: polystyrene; AMO: ammonia mono-oxygenase; NAR: nitrate reductase; NIR: nitrite reductase.
FUTURE TECHNICAL PROSPECTS FOR MICRO/NANOPLASTICS IMPACTS ON ECOSYSTEMS
Future research must prioritize in vivo real-time monitoring technologies to track MP/NP translocation and organ-level bioaccumulation. Advanced techniques such as clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-based biosensors could quantify intracellular reactive oxygen species bursts and DNA damage in model organisms (e.g., earthworms, zebrafish), while single-cell RNA sequencing would reveal tissue-specific stress responses. CRISPR biosensors provide exceptional specificity, sensitivity, and programmability for rapid point-of-care diagnostics but are hindered by technical challenges including off-target effects and integration complexities. For remediation, engineered microbes expressing plastic-degrading enzymes [e.g., polyethylene terephthalate-digesting enzyme (PETase)] show promise but require encapsulation for targeted delivery. Gene-edited plants (e.g., Arabidopsis with enhanced lignocellulose barriers) may reduce root NP uptake. Key challenges include scaling lab findings to field conditions and addressing disparities in species-specific susceptibility.
Next-generation tools must unravel MP/NP interference in biogeochemical loops. Stable isotope probing (SIP) combined with nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry (nanoSIMS) can trace carbon/nitrogen fluxes in MP-exposed soils, quantifying microbial carbon use efficiency losses. Autonomous sensor networks could monitor real-time soil enzyme activities (e.g., phosphatase, urease) altered by MPs. For mitigation, “smart” biochar composites with Fe3+/Mn4+ coatings may catalyze NP degradation while absorbing co-pollutants. Machine learning models integrating soil texture-MP aging data could predict phosphorus immobilization thresholds. Critical gaps include understanding nano-bubble facilitated NP transport in saturated zones and developing standardized assays for plastisphere microbiome functionality.
Multitrophic transfer dynamics necessitate mesocosm-scale studies using quantum dot-labeled NPs to track trophic magnification factors (TMFs). High-resolution mass spectrometry (e.g., Orbitrap) can identify MP-adsorbed toxin cocktails [e.g., polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)] in predator-prey systems. Network analysis via environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding will map MP-induced shifts in keystone species interactions. For risk interception, “green” nanocoating of MPs using plant polyphenols could reduce bioadhesion. Blockchain-enabled supply chain tracking may pinpoint MP hotspots entering agro-food systems.
Integrated assessment demands multi-omics approaches (metagenomics, metabolomics) to decode MP-driven functional gene erosion in critical processes (e.g., decomposition, nitrification). Remote sensing [Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR)/Sentinel-2] coupled with Internet of Things (IoT) soil sensors enables landscape-scale monitoring of MP impacts on carbon sequestration and water purification. For restoration, phage-mediated horizontal gene transfer could enhance plastic degradation in plastispheres, while electrokinetic NP separation may decontaminate sediments. Predictive frameworks, such as digital twins simulating wetland and hydrosoil systems under MP scenarios, need to be further developed. Priority areas include quantifying MP-induced biome boundary shifts and engineering climate-resilient microbial consortia. In terms of government regulation, efforts should be made to promote the establishment of ISO (International Organization for Standardization) standards for biodegradable plastics and related standards.
DECLARATIONS
Authors’ contributions
Made substantial contributions to conception and design of the work and performed data analysis and interpretation: Shen, N.; Wei, Y.; Yu, H.
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.
Financial support and sponsorship
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (52400231).
Conflicts of interest
All authors declared that there are no conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Copyright
© The Author(s) 2025.
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