REFERENCES
1. Kitching AR, Anders HJ, Basu N, et al. ANCA-associated vasculitis. Nat Rev Dis Primers 2020;6:71.
2. Jennette JC, Falk RJ, Bacon PA, et al. 2012 revised international Chapel Hill consensus conference nomenclature of vasculitides. Arthritis Rheum 2013;65:1-11.
3. Hellmich B, Sanchez-Alamo B, Schirmer JH, et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of ANCA-associated vasculitis: 2022 update. Ann Rheum Dis 2024;83:30-47.
4. Tan JA, Dehghan N, Chen W, Xie H, Esdaile JM, Avina-Zubieta JA. Mortality in ANCA-associated vasculitis: ameta-analysis of observational studies. Ann Rheum Dis 2017;76:1566-74.
5. Robson J, Doll H, Suppiah R, et al. Damage in the anca-associated vasculitides: long-term data from the European vasculitis study group (EUVAS) therapeutic trials. Ann Rheum Dis 2015;74:177-84.
6. Basu N, McClean A, Harper L, et al. The characterisation and determinants of quality of life in ANCA associated vasculitis. Ann Rheum Dis 2014;73:207-11.
7. Raimundo K, Farr AM, Kim G, Duna G. Clinical and economic burden of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis in the United States. J Rheumatol 2015;42:2383-91.
8. Gill N, Tervaert JWC, Yacyshyn E. Vasculitis patient journey: a scoping review of patient experiences with vasculitis. Clin Rheumatol 2021;40:1697-708.
9. Jones RB, Tervaert JW, Hauser T, et al. European Vasculitis Study Group. Rituximab versus cyclophosphamide in ANCA-associated renal vasculitis. N Engl J Med 2010;363:211-20.
10. Walsh M, Flossmann O, Berden A, et al. European Vasculitis Study Group. Risk factors for relapse of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis. Arthritis Rheum 2012;64:542-8.
11. Jayne DRW, Merkel PA, Schall TJ, Bekker P. ADVOCATE Study Group. Avacopan for the treatment of ANCA-associated vasculitis. N Engl J Med 2021;384:599-609.
12. Hellmich B, Flossmann O, Gross WL, et al. EULAR recommendations for conducting clinical studies and/or clinical trials in systemic vasculitis: focus on anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis. Ann Rheum Dis 2007;66:605-17.
13. Sangle S, Karim MY, Hughes GR, D'Cruz DP. Sulphamethoxazole-trimethoprim in the treatment of limited paranasal Wegener's granulomatosis. Rheumatology 2002;41:589-90.
14. Tervaert JW. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies-associated vasculitis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2018;30:388-94.
15. Monti S, Delvino P, Riboli M, et al. The role of trimethoprim/sulfametoxazole in reducing relapses and risk of infections in ANCA-associated vasculitis: a meta-analysis. Rheumatology 2021;60:3553-64.
16. Gachelin G, Garner P, Ferroni E, Tröhler U, Chalmers I. Evaluating Cinchona bark and quinine for treating and preventing malaria. J R Soc Med 2017;110:31-40.
17. Ben-Zvi I, Kivity S, Langevitz P, Shoenfeld Y. Hydroxychloroquine: from malaria to autoimmunity. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2012;42:145-53.
18. Dima A, Jurcut C, Chasset F, Felten R, Arnaud L. Hydroxychloroquine in systemic lupus erythematosus: overview of current knowledge. Ther Adv Musculoskelet Dis 2022;14:1759720X211073001.
19. Goss A. Building the world's supply of quinine: dutch colonialism and the origins of a global pharmaceutical industry. Endeavour 2014;38:8-18.
20. Payne JF. A postgraduate lecture on lupus erythematosus. J Clin Med 1894;4:223-9.
23. Lewis HM, Frumess GM. Plaquenil in the treatment of discoid lupus erythematosus; a preliminary report. AMA Arch Derm 1956;73:576-81.
24. Mullins JF, Watts FL, Wilson CJ. Plaquenil in the treatment of lupus erythematosus. J Am Med Assoc 1956;161:879-81.
25. Manohar S, Tripathi M, Rawat DS. 4-aminoquinoline based molecular hybrids as antimalarials: an overview. Curr Top Med Chem 2014;14:1706-33.
26. Rainsford KD, Parke AL, Clifford-Rashotte M, Kean WF. Therapy and pharmacological properties of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine in treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and related diseases. Inflammopharmacology 2015;23:231-69.
27. Schrezenmeier E, Dörner T. Mechanisms of action of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine: implications for rheumatology. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2020;16:155-66.
28. Tett SE, Cutler DJ, Day RO, Brown KF. Bioavailability of hydroxychloroquine tablets in healthy volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1989;27:771-9.
29. Costedoat-Chalumeau N, Amoura Z, Huong DL, Lechat P, Piette JC. Safety of hydroxychloroquine in pregnant patients with connective tissue diseases. Review of the literature. Autoimmun Rev 2005;4:111-5.
30. Russell MD, Dey M, Flint J, et al. BSR Standards; Audit and Guidelines Working Group. British society for rheumatology guideline on prescribing drugs in pregnancy and breastfeeding: immunomodulatory anti-rheumatic drugs and corticosteroids. Rheumatology 2023;62:e48-88.
31. Fanouriakis A, Kostopoulou M, Alunno A, et al. 2019 update of the EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 2019;78:736-45.
32. Gordon C, Amissah-Arthur MB, Gayed M, et al. British Society for Rheumatology Standards; Audit and Guidelines Working Group. The British society for rheumatology guideline for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus in adults. Rheumatology 2018;57:e1-45.
33. Hahn BH, McMahon MA, Wilkinson A, et al. American College of Rheumatology. American college of rheumatology guidelines for screening, treatment, and management of lupus nephritis. Arthritis Care Res 2012;64:797-808.
34. Pons-Estel BA, Bonfa E, Soriano ER, et al. Grupo Latino Americano de Estudio del Lupus (GLADEL) and Pan-American League of Associations of Rheumatology (PANLAR). First Latin American clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus: Latin American group for the study of lupus (GLADEL, Grupo Latino Americano de Estudio del Lupus)-Pan-American league of associations of rheumatology (PANLAR). Ann Rheum Dis 2018;77:1549-57.
35. Willis R, Seif AM, McGwin G Jr, et al. Effect of hydroxychloroquine treatment on pro-inflammatory cytokines and disease activity in SLE patients: data from LUMINA (LXXV), a multiethnic US cohort. Lupus 2012;21:830-5.
36. Alarcón GS, McGwin G, Bertoli AM, et al. LUMINA Study Group. Effect of hydroxychloroquine on the survival of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: data from LUMINA, a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA L). Ann Rheum Dis 2007;66:1168-72.
37. Costedoat-Chalumeau N, Galicier L, Aumaître O, et al. Group PLUS. Hydroxychloroquine in systemic lupus erythematosus: results of a French multicentre controlled trial (PLUS Study). Ann Rheum Dis 2013;72:1786-92.
38. Miyagawa I, Nakano K, Nakayamada S, et al. The additive effects of hydroxychloroquine to maintenance therapy with standard of care in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Int J Rheum Dis 2020;23:549-58.
39. Petri M, Purvey S, Fang H, Magder LS. Predictors of organ damage in systemic lupus erythematosus: the Hopkins lupus cohort. Arthritis Rheum 2012;64:4021-8.
40. Pons-Estel GJ, Alarcón GS, González LA, et al. Lumina Study Group. Possible protective effect of hydroxychloroquine on delaying the occurrence of integument damage in lupus: LXXI, data from a multiethnic cohort. Arthritis Care Res 2010;62:393-400.
41. Rosa GPD, Ortega MF, Teixeira A, Espinosa G, Cervera R. Causes and factors related to hospitalizations in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: analysis of a 20-year period (1995-2015) from a single referral centre in Catalonia. Lupus 2019;28:1158-66.
42. Petri M. Use of hydroxychloroquine to prevent thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus and in antiphospholipid antibody-positive patients. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2011;13:77-80.
43. Ruiz-Irastorza G, Egurbide MV, Pijoan JI, et al. Effect of antimalarials on thrombosis and survival in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2006;15:577-83.
44. Lakshminarayanan S, Walsh S, Mohanraj M, Rothfield N. Factors associated with low bone mineral density in female patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 2001;28:102-8.
45. Calvo-Alén J, McGwin G, Toloza S, et al. LUMINA Study Group. Systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic US cohort (LUMINA): XXIV. Cytotoxic treatment is an additional risk factor for the development of symptomatic osteonecrosis in lupus patients: results of a nested matched case-control study. Ann Rheum Dis 2006;65:785-90.
46. Li XB, Cao NW, Chu XJ, et al. Antimalarials may reduce cancer risk in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Ann Med 2021;53:1687-95.
47. James JA, Kim-Howard XR, Bruner BF, et al. Hydroxychloroquine sulfate treatment is associated with later onset of systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2007;16:401-9.
48. Pons-Estel GJ, Alarcón GS, Hachuel L, et al. GLADEL. Anti-malarials exert a protective effect while Mestizo patients are at increased risk of developing SLE renal disease: data from a Latin-American cohort. Rheumatology 2012;51:1293-8.
49. Yokogawa N, Eto H, Tanikawa A, et al. Effects of hydroxychloroquine in patients with cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a multicenter, double-blind, randomized, parallel-group trial. Arthritis Rheumatol 2017;69:791-9.
50. Chasset F, Arnaud L, Costedoat-Chalumeau N, Zahr N, Bessis D, Francès C. The effect of increasing the dose of hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) in patients with refractory cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CLE): an open-label prospective pilot study. J Am Acad Dermatol 2016;74:693-9.e3.
51. Chung HS, Hann SK. Lupus panniculitis treated by a combination therapy of hydroxychloroquine and quinacrine. J Dermatol 1997;24:569-72.
52. Pons-Estel GJ, Alarcón GS, McGwin G Jr, et al. Lumina Study Group. Protective effect of hydroxychloroquine on renal damage in patients with lupus nephritis: LXV, data from a multiethnic US cohort. Arthritis Rheum 2009;61:830-9.
53. Lee JS, Oh JS, Kim YG, Lee CK, Yoo B, Hong S. Recovery of renal function in patients with lupus nephritis and reduced renal function: the beneficial effect of hydroxychloroquine. Lupus 2020;29:52-7.
54. Clowse ME, Magder L, Witter F, Petri M. Hydroxychloroquine in lupus pregnancy. Arthritis Rheum 2006;54:3640-7.
55. Cortés-Hernández J, Ordi-Ros J, Paredes F, Casellas M, Castillo F, Vilardell-Tarres M. Clinical predictors of fetal and maternal outcome in systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective study of 103 pregnancies. Rheumatology 2002;41:643-50.
56. Koh JH, Ko HS, Kwok SK, Ju JH, Park SH. Hydroxychloroquine and pregnancy on lupus flares in Korean patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2015;24:210-7.
57. Saavedra MÁ, Miranda-Hernández D, Lara-Mejía A, et al. Use of antimalarial drugs is associated with a lower risk of preeclampsia in lupus pregnancy: a prospective cohort study. Int J Rheum Dis 2020;23:633-40.
58. Seo MR, Chae J, Kim YM, et al. Hydroxychloroquine treatment during pregnancy in lupus patients is associated with lower risk of preeclampsia. Lupus 2019;28:722-30.
59. Balevic SJ, Cohen-Wolkowiez M, Eudy AM, Green TP, Schanberg LE, Clowse MEB. Hydroxychloroquine levels throughout pregnancies complicated by rheumatic disease: implications for maternal and neonatal outcomes. J Rheumatol 2019;46:57-63.
60. Izmirly PM, Costedoat-Chalumeau N, Pisoni CN, et al. Maternal use of hydroxychloroquine is associated with a reduced risk of recurrent anti-SSA/Ro-antibody-associated cardiac manifestations of neonatal lupus. Circulation 2012;126:76-82.
61. Rheumatoid arthritis in adults: management. NICE guidelines. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng100 [Last accessed on 27 Feb 2024].
62. Smolen JS, Landewé RBM, Bergstra SA, et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of rheumatoid arthritis with synthetic and biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs: 2022 update. Ann Rheum Dis 2023;82:3-18.
63. Fraenkel L, Bathon JM, England BR, et al. 2021 American college of rheumatology guideline for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheumatol 2021;73:1108-23.
64. Schapink L, van den Ende CHM, Gevers LAHA, van Ede AE, den Broeder AA. The effects of methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine combination therapy vs methotrexate monotherapy in early rheumatoid arthritis patients. Rheumatology 2019;58:131-4.
65. Klarenbeek NB, Güler-Yüksel M, van der Kooij SM, et al. The impact of four dynamic, goal-steered treatment strategies on the 5-year outcomes of rheumatoid arthritis patients in the BeSt study. Ann Rheum Dis 2011;70:1039-46.
66. Carmichael SJ, Beal J, Day RO, Tett SE. Combination therapy with methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine for rheumatoid arthritis increases exposure to methotrexate. J Rheumatol 2002;29:2077-83.
67. Rempenault C, Combe B, Barnetche T, et al. Metabolic and cardiovascular benefits of hydroxychloroquine in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Rheum Dis 2018;77:98-103.
68. Nazir AM, Koganti B, Gupta K, et al. Evaluating the use of hydroxychloroquine in treating patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Cureus 2021;13:e19308.
69. Makol A, Crowson CS, Wetter DA, Sokumbi O, Matteson EL, Warrington KJ. Vasculitis associated with rheumatoid arthritis: a case-control study. Rheumatology 2014;53:890-9.
70. Makol A, Matteson EL, Warrington KJ. Rheumatoid vasculitis: an update. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2015;27:63-70.
71. Wu CL, Chang CC, Kor CT, et al. Hydroxychloroquine use and risk of CKD in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2018;13:702-9.
72. Casian A, Sangle SR, D'Cruz DP. New use for an old treatment: hydroxychloroquine as a potential treatment for systemic vasculitis. Autoimmun Rev 2018;17:660-4.
73. Fox R. Anti-malarial drugs: possible mechanisms of action in autoimmune disease and prospects for drug development. Lupus 1996;5 Suppl 1:S4-10.
74. So A, Ives A, Joosten LAB, Busso N. Targeting inflammasomes in rheumatic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2013;9:391-9.
75. Hamzaoui K, Hamzaoui A. Vasculitis and the NLRP3 inflammasome. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2024;36:9-15.
76. Tashiro M, Sasatomi Y, Watanabe R, et al. IL-1β promotes tubulointerstitial injury in MPO-ANCA-associated glomerulonephritis. Clin Nephrol 2016;86:190-9.
77. Wang LY, Sun XJ, Chen M, Zhao MH. The expression of NOD2, NLRP3 and NLRC5 and renal injury in anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis. J Transl Med 2019;17:197.
78. Fujita Y, Matsuoka N, Temmoku J, et al. Hydroxychloroquine inhibits IL-1β production from amyloid-stimulated human neutrophils. Arthritis Res Ther 2019;21:250.
79. Lucchesi A, Silimbani P, Musuraca G, et al. Clinical and biological data on the use of hydroxychloroquine against SARS-CoV-2 could support the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenesis of respiratory disease. J Med Virol 2021;93:124-6.
80. Smulski CR, Eibel H. BAFF and BAFF-receptor in B cell selection and survival. Front Immunol 2018;9:2285.
81. Krumbholz M, Specks U, Wick M, Kalled SL, Jenne D, Meinl E. BAFF is elevated in serum of patients with Wegener's granulomatosis. J Autoimmun 2005;25:298-302.
82. Nagai M, Hirayama K, Ebihara I, Shimohata H, Kobayashi M, Koyama A. Serum levels of BAFF and APRIL in myeloperoxidase anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody-associated renal vasculitis: association with disease activity. Nephron Clin Pract 2011;118:c339-45.
83. Mumcu G, Biçakçigil M, Yilmaz N, et al. Salivary and serum B-cell activating factor (BAFF) levels after hydroxychloroquine treatment in primary Sjögren's syndrome. Oral Health Prev Dent 2013;11:229-34.
84. Lambers WM, Westra J, Bootsma H, de Leeuw K. Hydroxychloroquine suppresses interferon-inducible genes and B cell activating factor in patients with incomplete and new-onset systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 2021;48:847-51.
85. Mahdy AA, Raafat HA, El-fishawy HS, Gheita TA. Therapeutic potential of hydroxychloroquine on serum B-cell activating factor belonging to the tumor necrosis factor family (BAFF) in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Bull Fac Pharm Cairo Univ 2014;52:37-43.
86. Lepse N, Land J, Rutgers A, et al. Toll-like receptor 9 activation enhances B cell activating factor and interleukin-21 induced anti-proteinase 3 autoantibody production in vitro. Rheumatology 2016;55:162-72.
87. O'Sullivan KM, Ford SL, Longano A, Kitching AR, Holdsworth SR. Intrarenal Toll-like receptor 4 and Toll-like receptor 2 expression correlates with injury in antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2018;315:F1283-94.
88. Wang H, Gou SJ, Zhao MH, Chen M. The expression of Toll-like receptors 2, 4 and 9 in kidneys of patients with anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis. Clin Exp Immunol 2014;177:603-10.
89. Holle JU, Windmöller M, Lange C, Gross WL, Herlyn K, Csernok E. Toll-like receptor TLR2 and TLR9 ligation triggers neutrophil activation in granulomatosis with polyangiitis. Rheumatology 2013;52:1183-9.
90. Tadema H, Abdulahad WH, Lepse N, Stegeman CA, Kallenberg CG, Heeringa P. Bacterial DNA motifs trigger ANCA production in ANCA-associated vasculitis in remission. Rheumatology 2011;50:689-96.
91. Hurtado PR, Jeffs L, Nitschke J, et al. CpG oligodeoxynucleotide stimulates production of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies in ANCA associated vasculitis. BMC Immunol 2008;9:34.
92. Konstantinov KN, Ulff-Møller CJ, Tzamaloukas AH. Infections and antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies: triggering mechanisms. Autoimmun Rev 2015;14:201-3.
93. Husmann CA, Holle JU, Moosig F, et al. Genetics of toll like receptor 9 in ANCA associated vasculitides. Ann Rheum Dis 2014;73:890-6.
94. Torigoe M, Sakata K, Ishii A, Iwata S, Nakayamada S, Tanaka Y. Hydroxychloroquine efficiently suppresses inflammatory responses of human class-switched memory B cells via Toll-like receptor 9 inhibition. Clin Immunol 2018;195:1-7.
95. Cenac C, Ducatez MF, Guéry JC. Hydroxychloroquine inhibits proteolytic processing of endogenous TLR7 protein in human primary plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Eur J Immunol 2022;52:54-61.
96. Hennessy EJ, Parker AE, O'Neill LA. Targeting Toll-like receptors: emerging therapeutics? Nat Rev Drug Discov 2010;9:293-307.
97. Gao W, Xiong Y, Li Q, Yang H. Inhibition of Toll-like receptor signaling as a promising therapy for inflammatory diseases: a journey from molecular to nano therapeutics. Front Physiol 2017;8:508.
98. Hoffmann JC, Patschan D, Dihazi H, et al. Cytokine profiling in anti neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis: a cross-sectional cohort study. Rheumatol Int 2019;39:1907-17.
99. van den Borne BE, Dijkmans BA, de Rooij HH, le Cessie S, Verweij CL. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine equally affect tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin 6, and interferon-gamma production by peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J Rheumatol 1997;24:55-60.
100. Wakiya R, Ueeda K, Nakashima S, et al. Effect of add-on hydroxychloroquine therapy on serum proinflammatory cytokine levels in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Sci Rep 2022;12:10175.
101. Abdulahad WH, Lamprecht P, Kallenberg CG. T-helper cells as new players in ANCA-associated vasculitides. Arthritis Res Ther 2011;13:236.
102. Abdulahad WH, van der Geld YM, Stegeman CA, Kallenberg CG. Persistent expansion of CD4+ effector memory T cells in Wegener's granulomatosis. Kidney Int 2006;70:938-47.
103. Valenzuela L, Bordignon Draibe J, Fulladosa Oliveras X, Bestard Matamoros O, Cruzado Garrit JM, Torras Ambrós J. T-lymphocyte in ANCA-associated vasculitis: what do we know? A pathophysiological and therapeutic approach. Clin Kidney J 2019;12:503-11.
104. Hirayama K, Ishizu T, Shimohata H, et al. Analysis of T-cell receptor usage in myeloperoxidase - antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated renal vasculitis. Clin Exp Nephrol 2010;14:36-42.
105. McKinney EF, Lee JC, Jayne DR, Lyons PA, Smith KG. T-cell exhaustion, co-stimulation and clinical outcome in autoimmunity and infection. Nature 2015;523:612-6.
106. Abdulahad WH, Stegeman CA, van der Geld YM, Doornbos-van der Meer B, Limburg PC, Kallenberg CG. Functional defect of circulating regulatory CD4+ T cells in patients with Wegener's granulomatosis in remission. Arthritis Rheum 2007;56:2080-91.
107. Kim S, Boehme L, Nel L, et al. Defective STAT5 activation and aberrant expression of BCL6 in naive CD4 T cells enhances follicular Th cell-like differentiation in patients with granulomatosis with polyangiitis. J Immunol 2022;208:807-18.
108. Goldman FD, Gilman AL, Hollenback C, Kato RM, Premack BA, Rawlings DJ. Hydroxychloroquine inhibits calcium signals in T cells: a new mechanism to explain its immunomodulatory properties. Blood 2000;95:3460-6.
109. van Loosdregt J, Spreafico R, Rossetti M, Prakken BJ, Lotz M, Albani S. Hydroxychloroquine preferentially induces apoptosis of CD45RO+ effector T cells by inhibiting autophagy: a possible mechanism for therapeutic modulation of T cells. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2013;131:1443-6.e1.
110. Kowatsch MM, Lajoie J, Mwangi L, et al. Hydroxychloroquine reduces T cells activation recall antigen responses. PLoS One 2023;18:e0287738.
111. Kim ML, Hardy MY, Edgington-Mitchell LE, et al. Hydroxychloroquine inhibits the mitochondrial antioxidant system in activated T cells. iScience 2021;24:103509.
112. Taverna S, Tonacci A, Ferraro M, et al. High mobility group box 1: biological functions and relevance in oxidative stress related chronic diseases. Cells 2022;11:849.
113. Guan H, Zhong M, Ma K, et al. The comprehensive role of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein in different tumors: a pan-cancer analysis. J Inflamm Res 2023;16:617-37.
114. Kianian F, Kadkhodaee M, Sadeghipour HR, Karimian SM, Seifi B. An overview of high-mobility group box 1, a potent pro-inflammatory cytokine in asthma. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 2020:31.
115. Mo J, Hu J, Cheng X. The role of high mobility group box 1 in neuroinflammatory related diseases. Biomed Pharmacother 2023;161:114541.
116. Ge Y, Huang M, Yao YM. The Effect and regulatory mechanism of high mobility group box-1 protein on immune cells in inflammatory diseases. Cells 2021;10:1044.
117. Gou X, Ying J, Yue Y, et al. The roles of high mobility group box 1 in cerebral ischemic injury. Front Cell Neurosci 2020;14:600280.
118. Vijayakumar EC, Bhatt LK, Prabhavalkar KS. High mobility group box-1 (HMGB1): a potential target in therapeutics. Curr Drug Targets 2019;20:1474-85.
119. Bruchfeld A, Wendt M, Bratt J, et al. High-mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB1) is increased in antineutrophilic cytoplasmatic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis with renal manifestations. Mol Med 2011;17:29-35.
120. Wang C, de Souza AW, Westra J, et al. Emerging role of high mobility group box 1 in ANCA-associated vasculitis. Autoimmun Rev 2015;14:1057-65.
121. Wang C, Gou SJ, Chang DY, Yu F, Zhao MH, Chen M. Association of circulating level of high mobility group box 1 with disease activity in antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody-associated vasculitis. Arthritis Care Res 2013;65:1828-34.
122. Wibisono D, Csernok E, Lamprecht P, Holle JU, Gross WL, Moosig F. Serum HMGB1 levels are increased in active Wegener's granulomatosis and differentiate between active forms of ANCA-associated vasculitis. Ann Rheum Dis 2010;69:1888-9.
123. de Souza AW, Westra J, Limburg PC, Bijl M, Kallenberg CG. HMGB1 in vascular diseases: Its role in vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis. Autoimmun Rev 2012;11:909-17.
124. Niemann B, Puleo A, Stout C, Markel J, Boone BA. Biologic functions of hydroxychloroquine in disease: from COVID-19 to Cancer. Pharmaceutics 2022;14:2551.
125. Yang M, Cao L, Xie M, et al. Chloroquine inhibits HMGB1 inflammatory signaling and protects mice from lethal sepsis. Biochem Pharmacol 2013;86:410-8.
126. Laronha H, Caldeira J. Structure and function of human matrix metalloproteinases. Cells 2020;9:1076.
127. Nagase H, Visse R, Murphy G. Structure and function of matrix metalloproteinases and TIMPs. Cardiovasc Res 2006;69:562-73.
128. Cabral-Pacheco GA, Garza-Veloz I, Castruita-De la Rosa C, et al. The roles of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in human diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2020;21:9739.
129. Zakiyanov O, Chocová Z, Hrušková Z, et al. Matrix metalloproteinases and their tissue inhibitors: an evaluation of novel biomarkers in ANCA-associated vasculitis. Fol Biol 2019;65:227-36.
130. Sanders JS, Huitema MG, Hanemaaijer R, van Goor H, Kallenberg CG, Stegeman CA. Urinary matrix metalloproteinases reflect renal damage in anti-neutrophil cytoplasm autoantibody-associated vasculitis. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2007;293:F1927-34.
131. Ishizaki J, Takemori A, Horie K, et al. Research Committee of Intractable Vasculitis Syndrome and the Research Committee of Intractable Renal Disease of the Ministry of Health; Labour and Welfare of Japan. Usefulness of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 as a predictor of sustained remission in patients with antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis. Arthritis Res Ther 2021;23:91.
132. Rymarz A, Mosakowska M, Niemczyk S. The significance of metalloproteinase 3 (MMP-3), chemokine CXC ligand 13 (CXCL-13) and complement component C5a in different stages of ANCA associated vasculitis. Sci Rep 2021;11:5132.
133. Lesiak A, Narbutt J, Sysa-Jedrzejowska A, Lukamowicz J, McCauliffe DP, Wózniacka A. Effect of chloroquine phosphate treatment on serum MMP-9 and TIMP-1 levels in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus 2010;19:683-8.
134. Ertugrul G, Keles D, Oktay G, Aktan S. Matrix metalloproteinase-2 and -9 activity levels increase in cutaneous lupus erythematosus lesions and correlate with disease severity. Arch Dermatol Res 2018;310:173-9.
135. Merkel PA, Lo GH, Holbrook JT, et al. Wegener's Granulomatosis Etanercept Trial Research Group. Brief communication: high incidence of venous thrombotic events among patients with Wegener granulomatosis: the Wegener's clinical occurrence of thrombosis (WeCLOT) study. Ann Intern Med 2005;142:620-6.
136. Liapi M, Jayne D, Merkel PA, Segelmark M, Mohammad AJ. Venous thromboembolism in ANCA-associated vasculitis: a population-based cohort study. Rheumatology 2021;60:4616-23.
137. Hilhorst M, Winckers K, Wilde B, van Oerle R, ten Cate H, Tervaert JW. Patients with antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies associated vasculitis in remission are hypercoagulable. J Rheumatol 2013;40:2042-6.
138. Hansrivijit P, Trongtorsak A, Gadhiya KP, et al. Incidence and risk factors of venous thromboembolism in ANCA-associated vasculitis: a metaanalysis and metaregression. Clin Rheumatol 2021;40:2843-53.
139. Isaacs B, Gapud EJ, Antiochos B, Seo P, Geetha D. Venous thrombotic events in ANCA-Associated vasculitis: incidence and risk factors. Kidney360 2020;1:258-62.
140. Carter AE, Eban R, Perrett RD. Prevention of postoperative deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Br Med J 1971;1:312-4.
141. Hansen E, Jessing P, Lindewald H, Ostergaard P, Olesen T, Malver E. Hydroxychloroquine sulphate in prevention of deep venous thrombosis following fracture of the hip, pelvis, or thoracolumbar spine. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1976;58:1089-93.
142. Mekinian A, Lazzaroni MG, Kuzenko A, et al. SNFMI and the European Forum on Antiphospholipid Antibodies. The efficacy of hydroxychloroquine for obstetrical outcome in anti-phospholipid syndrome: data from a European multicenter retrospective study. Autoimmun Rev 2015;14:498-502.
143. Belizna C. Hydroxychloroquine as an anti-thrombotic in antiphospholipid syndrome. Autoimmun Rev 2015;14:358-62.
144. Espinola R, Pierangeli S, Ghara A, Harris E. Hydroxychloroquine reverses platelet activation induced by human IgG antiphospholipid antibodies. Thromb Haemost 2002;87:518-22.
145. Belizna CC, Richard V, Thuillez C, Lévesque H, Shoenfeld Y. Insights into atherosclerosis therapy in antiphospholipid syndrome. Autoimmun Rev 2007;7:46-51.
146. Nuri E, Taraborelli M, Andreoli L, et al. Long-term use of hydroxychloroquine reduces antiphospholipid antibodies levels in patients with primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Immunol Res 2017;65:17-24.
147. Erkan D, Yazici Y, Peterson MG, Sammaritano L, Lockshin MD. A cross-sectional study of clinical thrombotic risk factors and preventive treatments in antiphospholipid syndrome. Rheumatology 2002;41:924-9.
148. Rand JH, Wu XX, Quinn AS, et al. Hydroxychloroquine protects the annexin A5 anticoagulant shield from disruption by antiphospholipid antibodies: evidence for a novel effect for an old antimalarial drug. Blood 2010;115:2292-9.
149. Wu XX, Guller S, Rand JH. Hydroxychloroquine reduces binding of antiphospholipid antibodies to syncytiotrophoblasts and restores annexin A5 expression. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;205:576.e7-14.
150. Bengtsson C, Andersson SE, Edvinsson L, Edvinsson ML, Sturfelt G, Nived O. Effect of medication on microvascular vasodilatation in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2010;107:919-24.
151. Tanay A, Leibovitz E, Frayman A, Zimlichman R, Shargorodsky M, Gavish D. Vascular elasticity of systemic lupus erythematosus patients is associated with steroids and hydroxychloroquine treatment. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007;1108:24-34.
152. Folci M, Ramponi G, Shiffer D, Zumbo A, Agosti M, Brunetta E. ANCA-Associated vasculitides and hematologic malignancies: lessons from the past and future perspectives. J Immunol Res 2019;2019:1732175.
153. Heijl C, Harper L, Flossmann O, et al. European Vasculitis Study Group (EUVAS). Incidence of malignancy in patients treated for antineutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis: follow-up data from European vasculitis study group clinical trials. Ann Rheum Dis 2011;70:1415-21.
154. Mahr A, Heijl C, Le Guenno G, Faurschou M. ANCA-associated vasculitis and malignancy: current evidence for cause and consequence relationships. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2013;27:45-56.
155. van Daalen EE, Rizzo R, Kronbichler A, et al. Effect of rituximab on malignancy risk in patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis. Ann Rheum Dis 2017;76:1064-9.
156. Geser A, Brubaker G, Draper CC. Effect of a malaria suppression program on the incidence of African Burkitt's lymphoma. Am J Epidemiol 1989;129:740-52.
157. Gheitasi H, Kostov B, Solans R, et al. SS Study Group; Autoimmune Diseases Study Group (GEAS); Spanish Society of Internal Medicine (SEMI). How are we treating our systemic patients with primary Sjögren syndrome? Analysis of 1120 patients. Int Immunopharmacol 2015;27:194-9.
158. Ko KM, Moon SJ. Prevalence, incidence, and risk factors of malignancy in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a nationwide cohort study from Korea. Korean J Intern Med 2023;38:113-24.
159. Lee H, Chen SK, Gautam N, et al. Risk of malignant melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer in rheumatoid arthritis patients initiating methotrexate versus hydroxychloroquine: a cohort study. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2023;41:110-7.
160. Houben E, Penne EL, Voskuyl AE, et al. Cardiovascular events in anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Rheumatology 2018;57:555-62.
161. Massicotte-Azarniouch D, Petrcich W, Walsh M, et al. Association of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis and cardiovascular events: a population-based cohort study. Clin Kidney J 2022;15:681-92.
162. Raza K, Thambyrajah J, Townend JN, et al. Suppression of inflammation in primary systemic vasculitis restores vascular endothelial function: lessons for atherosclerotic disease? Circulation 2000;102:1470-2.
163. Booth AD, Jayne DR, Kharbanda RK, et al. Infliximab improves endothelial dysfunction in systemic vasculitis: a model of vascular inflammation. Circulation 2004;109:1718-23.
164. Clifford AH, Cohen Tervaert JW. Cardiovascular events and the role of accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic vasculitis. Atherosclerosis 2021;325:8-15.
165. Tervaert JW. Cardiovascular disease due to accelerated atherosclerosis in systemic vasculitides. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 2013;27:33-44.
166. Penn SK, Kao AH, Schott LL, et al. Hydroxychloroquine and glycemia in women with rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 2010;37:1136-42.
167. Petri M. Hydroxychloroquine use in the Baltimore Lupus Cohort: effects on lipids, glucose and thrombosis. Lupus 1996;5:16-22.
168. Solomon DH, Garg R, Lu B, et al. Effect of hydroxychloroquine on insulin sensitivity and lipid parameters in rheumatoid arthritis patients without diabetes mellitus: a randomized, blinded crossover trial. Arthritis Care Res 2014;66:1246-51.
169. Petri M, Lakatta C, Magder L, Goldman D. Effect of prednisone and hydroxychloroquine on coronary artery disease risk factors in systemic lupus erythematosus: a longitudinal data analysis. Am J Med 1994;96:254-9.
170. Xu T, Chen Z, Jiang M, et al. Association between different infection profiles and one-year outcomes in ANCA-associated vasculitis: a retrospective study with monthly infection screening. RMD Open 2022;8:e002424.
171. Flossmann O, Berden A, de Groot K, et al. European Vasculitis Study Group. Long-term patient survival in ANCA-associated vasculitis. Ann Rheum Dis 2011;70:488-94.
172. Ruiz-Irastorza G, Olivares N, Ruiz-Arruza I, Martinez-Berriotxoa A, Egurbide MV, Aguirre C. Predictors of major infections in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Res Ther 2009;11:R109.
173. Smitten AL, Choi HK, Hochberg MC, et al. The risk of hospitalized infection in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 2008;35:387-93.
174. Yusuf IH, Foot B, Lotery AJ. The royal college of ophthalmologists recommendations on monitoring for hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine users in the United Kingdom (2020 revision): executive summary. Eye 2021;35:1532-7.
175. Learoyd AE, Arnold L, Reid F, et al. HAVEN study group. The HAVEN study-hydroxychloroquine in ANCA vasculitis evaluation-a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial: study protocol and statistical analysis plan. Trials 2023;24:261.
176. Price EJ, Rauz S, Tappuni AR, et al. British Society for Rheumatology Standards; Guideline and Audit Working Group. The British society for rheumatology guideline for the management of adults with primary Sjögren's syndrome. Rheumatology 2017;56:e24-48.
177. Ramos-Casals M, Brito-Zerón P, Bombardieri S, et al. EULAR-Sjögren Syndrome Task Force Group. EULAR recommendations for the management of Sjögren's syndrome with topical and systemic therapies. Ann Rheum Dis 2020;79:3-18.
178. Fox R, Dixon R, Guarrasi V, Krubel S. Treatment of primary Sjögren's syndrome with hydroxychloroquine: a retrospective, open-label study. Lupus 1996;5:31-6.
179. Cankaya H, Alpöz E, Karabulut G, Güneri P, Boyacioglu H, Kabasakal Y. Effects of hydroxychloroquine on salivary flow rates and oral complaints of Sjögren patients: a prospective sample study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2010;110:62-7.
180. Kruize AA, Hené RJ, Kallenberg CG, et al. Hydroxychloroquine treatment for primary Sjögren's syndrome: a two year double blind crossover trial. Ann Rheum Dis 1993;52:360-4.
181. Fox RI, Chan E, Benton L, Fong S, Friedlaender M, Howell FV. Treatment of primary Sjögren's syndrome with hydroxychloroquine. Am J Med 1988;85:62-7.
182. Yoon CH, Lee HJ, Lee EY, et al. Effect of hydroxychloroquine treatment on dry eyes in subjects with primary sjögren's syndrome: a double-blind randomized control study. J Korean Med Sci 2016;31:1127-35.
183. Gottenberg JE, Ravaud P, Puéchal X, et al. Effects of hydroxychloroquine on symptomatic improvement in primary Sjögren syndrome: the JOQUER randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2014;312:249-58.
184. Wang SQ, Zhang LW, Wei P, Hua H. Is hydroxychloroquine effective in treating primary Sjogren's syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2017;18:186.
185. Tektonidou MG, Andreoli L, Limper M, et al. EULAR recommendations for the management of antiphospholipid syndrome in adults. Ann Rheum Dis 2019;78:1296-304.
186. Erkan D, Unlu O, Sciascia S, et al. APS ACTION. Hydroxychloroquine in the primary thrombosis prophylaxis of antiphospholipid antibody positive patients without systemic autoimmune disease. Lupus 2018;27:399-406.
187. Sciascia S, Hunt BJ, Talavera-Garcia E, Lliso G, Khamashta MA, Cuadrado MJ. The impact of hydroxychloroquine treatment on pregnancy outcome in women with antiphospholipid antibodies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2016;214:273.e1-8.
188. Hooper A, Bacal V, Bedaiwy MA. Does adding hydroxychloroquine to empiric treatment improve the live birth rate in refractory obstetrical antiphospholipid syndrome? A systematic review. Am J Reprod Immunol 2023;90:e13761.
189. Edwards MH, Pierangeli S, Liu X, Barker JH, Anderson G, Harris EN. Hydroxychloroquine reverses thrombogenic properties of antiphospholipid antibodies in mice. Circulation 1997;96:4380-4.
190. Baughman RP, Valeyre D, Korsten P, et al. ERS clinical practice guidelines on treatment of sarcoidosis. Eur Respir J 2021;58:2004079.
191. Thillai M, Atkins CP, Crawshaw A, et al. BTS clinical statement on pulmonary sarcoidosis. Thorax 2021;76:4-20.
192. Smedslund G, Kotar AM, Uhlig T. Sarcoidosis with musculoskeletal manifestations: systematic review of non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatments. Rheumatol Int 2022;42:2109-24.
193. Sharma R, Guleria R, Mohan A. Treatment of pulmonary sarcoidosis with hydroxycholoroquine: result of a pilot study from Indi. Chest 2003;124:109S.
194. Ben Hassine I, Rein C, Comarmond C, et al. Osseous sarcoidosis: A multicenter retrospective case-control study of 48 patients. Joint Bone Spine 2019;86:789-93.
195. Sharma OP. Effectiveness of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in treating selected patients with sarcoidosis with neurological involvement. Arch Neurol 1998;55:1248-54.
196. Lee W, Ruijgrok L, Boxma-de Klerk B, et al. Efficacy of hydroxychloroquine in hand osteoarthritis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Care Res 2018;70:1320-5.
197. Kingsbury SR, Tharmanathan P, Keding A, et al. Hydroxychloroquine effectiveness in reducing symptoms of hand osteoarthritis: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2018;168:385-95.
198. Wright NA, Mazori DR, Patel M, Merola JF, Femia AN, Vleugels RA. Epidemiology and treatment of eosinophilic fasciitis: an analysis of 63 patients from 3 tertiary care centers. JAMA Dermatol 2016;152:97-9.
199. Woo TY, Callen JP, Voorhees JJ, Bickers DR, Hanno R, Hawkins C. Cutaneous lesions of dermatomyositis are improved by hydroxychloroquine. J Am Acad Dermatol 1984;10:592-600.
200. Zhang QC, Liu MY, Chen ZX, Chen YT, Lin CS, Xu Q. Case report: treatment of anti-MDA5-positive amyopathic dermatomyositis accompanied by a rapidly progressive interstitial lung diseases with methylprednisolone pulse therapy combined with cyclosporine A and hydroxychloroquine. Front Med 2020;7:610554.
201. Olson NY, Lindsley CB. Adjunctive use of hydroxychloroquine in childhood dermatomyositis. J Rheumatol 1989;16:1545-7.
202. Lin YC, Huang HH, Nong BR, et al. Pediatric Kikuchi-Fujimoto disease: a clinicopathologic study and the therapeutic effects of hydroxychloroquine. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2019;52:395-401.
203. Hyun M, So IT, Kim HA, Jung H, Ryu SY. Recurrent Kikuchi's disease treated by hydroxychloroquine. Infect Chemother 2016;48:127-31.
204. Sun L, Gong YR, Chen Q, et al. Application and safety of hydroxychloroquine in chronic disease among children. Zhonghua Er Ke Za Zhi 2021;59:107-12.
205. Nogueira IA, Cordeiro RA, Henn GAL, Oliveira JL. Hydroxychloroquine for the management of chronic chikungunya arthritis. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2023;65:e26.
206. Mohammadpour F, Kargar M, Hadjibabaie M. The role of hydroxychloroquine as a steroid-sparing agent in the treatment of immune thrombocytopenia: a review of the literature. J Res Pharm Pract 2018;7:4-12.
207. Bockow B, Kaplan TB. Refractory immune thrombocytopenia successfully treated with high-dose vitamin D supplementation and hydroxychloroquine: two case reports. J Med Case Rep 2013;7:91.
208. Zhang J, Lu X, Feng J, Li H, Wang S. Effects of hydroxychloroquine on proteinuria in IgA nephropathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Biomed Res Int 2021;2021:9171715.
209. Liu LJ, Yang YZ, Shi SF, et al. Effects of hydroxychloroquine on proteinuria in IgA nephropathy: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Kidney Dis 2019;74:15-22.
210. Si FL, Tang C, Lv JC, et al. Comparison between hydroxychloroquine and systemic corticosteroids in IgA nephropathy: a two-year follow-up study. BMC Nephrol 2023;24:175.
211. WHO guidelines for malaria. Available from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/guidelines-for-malaria [Last accessed on 27 Feb 2024].
212. Horby P, Mafham M, Linsell L, et al. RECOVERY Collaborative Group. Effect of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalized patients with Covid-19. N Engl J Med 2020;383:2030-40.
213. Arabi YM, Gordon AC, Derde LPG, et al. REMAP-CAP Investigators. Lopinavir-ritonavir and hydroxychloroquine for critically ill patients with COVID-19: REMAP-CAP randomized controlled trial. Intensive Care Med 2021;47:867-86.
214. Sivapalan P, Ulrik CS, Lapperre TS, et al. ProPAC-COVID writing group on behalf of the ProPAC-COVID Study Group. Azithromycin and hydroxychloroquine in hospitalised patients with confirmed COVID-19: a randomised double-blinded placebo-controlled trial. Eur Respir J 2022;59:2100752.
215. Pan H, Peto R, Henao-Restrepo AM, et al. WHO Solidarity Trial Consortium. Repurposed antiviral drugs for Covid-19 - interim WHO solidarity trial results. N Engl J Med 2021;384:497-511.
216. Pradelle A, Mainbourg S, Provencher S, Massy E, Grenet G, Lega JC. Deaths induced by compassionate use of hydroxychloroquine during the first COVID-19 wave: an estimate. Biomed Pharmacother 2024;171:116055.
217. Diagnosis and management of Q fever - United States, 2013: recommendations from CDC and the Q fever working group. Available from: https:// www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr6203a1.htm [Last accessed on 27 Feb 2024].
218. Coxiella burnetii infection. BMJ Best Practice Available from: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/1139 [Last accessed on 27 Feb 2024].
219. Whipple’s disease. BMJ Best Practice Available from: https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/467 [Last accessed on 27 Feb 2024].
220. Wang X, Long X, Jia S, et al. In vitro and in vivo synergistic effects of hydroxychloroquine and itraconazole on Cryptococcus neoformans. Folia Microbiol 2023;68:595-605.
221. Luo W, Che D, Lu H, Jiang Y. New perspectives from misdiagnosis: a case of primary cutaneous cryptococcosis treated with hydroxychloroquine sulfate successfully. Mycopathologia 2020;185:595-6.
222. Rolain JM, Colson P, Raoult D. Recycling of chloroquine and its hydroxyl analogue to face bacterial, fungal and viral infections in the 21st century. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2007;30:297-308.
223. Dias-Melicio LA, Moreira AP, Calvi SA, Soares AM. Chloroquine inhibits paracoccidioides brasiliensis survival within human monocytes by limiting the availability of intracellular iron. Microbiol Immunol 2006;50:307-14.
224. Naghipour S, Ghodousi M, Rahsepar S, Elyasi S. Repurposing of well-known medications as antivirals: hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine - from HIV-1 infection to COVID-19. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2020;18:1119-33.
225. Shiryaev SA, Mesci P, Pinto A, et al. Repurposing of the anti-malaria drug chloroquine for Zika virus treatment and prophylaxis. Sci Rep 2017;7:15771.
226. Hamilton BK. Updates in chronic graft-versus-host disease. Hematol Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 2021;2021:648-54.
227. Gilman AL, Chan KW, Mogul A, et al. Hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of chronic graft-versus-host disease. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2000;6:327-34.
228. Khoury H, Trinkaus K, Zhang MJ, et al. Hydroxychloroquine for the prevention of acute graft-versus-host disease after unrelated donor transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2003;9:714-21.
229. Fong T, Trinkaus K, Adkins D, et al. A randomized double-blind trial of hydroxychloroquine for the prevention of chronic graft-versus-host disease after allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2007;13:1201-6.
230. Gilman AL, Schultz KR, Goldman FD, et al. Randomized trial of hydroxychloroquine for newly diagnosed chronic graft-versus-host disease in children: a children's oncology group study. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2012;18:84-91.
231. Lagneaux L, Delforge A, Dejeneffe M, Massy M, Bernier M, Bron D. Hydroxychloroquine-induced apoptosis of chronic lymphocytic leukemia involves activation of caspase-3 and modulation of Bcl-2/bax/ratio. Leuk Lymphoma 2002;43:1087-95.
232. Mansilla E, Marin GH, Nuñez L, et al. The lysosomotropic agent, hydroxychloroquine, delivered in a biodegradable nanoparticle system, overcomes drug resistance of B-chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells in vitro. Cancer Biother Radiopharm 2010;25:97-103.
233. Jiang PD, Zhao YL, Shi W, et al. Cell growth inhibition, G2/M cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis induced by chloroquine in human breast cancer cell line Bcap-37. Cell Physiol Biochem 2008;22:431-40.
234. Rahim R, Strobl JS. Hydroxychloroquine, chloroquine, and all-trans retinoic acid regulate growth, survival, and histone acetylation in breast cancer cells. Anticancer Drugs 2009;20:736-45.
236. Cainelli T, Di Padova C, Marchesi L, et al. Hydroxychloroquine versus phlebotomy in the treatment of porphyria cutanea tarda. Br J Dermatol 1983;108:593-600.
237. Marchesi L, Di Padova C, Cainelli T, et al. A comparative trial of desferrioxamine and hydroxychloroquine for treatment of porphyria cutanea tarda in alcoholic patients. Photodermatology 1984;1:286-92.
238. Singal AK, Kormos-Hallberg C, Lee C, et al. Low-dose hydroxychloroquine is as effective as phlebotomy in treatment of patients with porphyria cutanea tarda. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012;10:1402-9.
239. Pareek A, Khopkar U, Sacchidanand S, Chandurkar N, Naik GS. Comparative study of efficacy and safety of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine in polymorphic light eruption: a randomized, double-blind, multicentric study. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2008;74:18-22.
240. Hrin ML, Feldman SR, Huang WW. Hydroxychloroquine for generalized granuloma annulare: 35% response rate in a retrospective case series of 26 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol 2022;87:144-7.
241. Eisen D. Hydroxychloroquine sulfate (Plaquenil) improves oral lichen planus: an open trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993;28:609-12.
242. Husein-ElAhmed H, Gieler U, Steinhoff M. Lichen planus: a comprehensive evidence-based analysis of medical treatment. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2019;33:1847-62.
243. Stoopler ET, Kulkarni R, Alawi F, Sollecito TP. Novel combination therapy of hydroxychloroquine and topical tacrolimus for chronic ulcerative stomatitis. Int J Dermatol 2021;60:e162-3.
244. Brant EG, Akilov O. Hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of hidradenitis suppurativa. JAAD Case Rep 2023;37:64-7.
245. Khan N, Epstein TG, DuBuske I, Strobel M, Bernstein DI. Effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine and omalizumab in chronic spontaneous urticaria: a real-world study. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2022;10:3300-5.
246. Reeves GE, Boyle MJ, Bonfield J, Dobson P, Loewenthal M. Impact of hydroxychloroquine therapy on chronic urticaria: chronic autoimmune urticaria study and evaluation. Intern Med J 2004;34:182-6.
247. Koch MW, Kaur S, Sage K, et al. Hydroxychloroquine for primary progressive multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 2021;90:940-8.
248. Sun L, Kuang XY, Zhang J, Huang WY. Hydroxychloroquine ameliorates hematuria in children with X-linked alport syndrome: retrospective case series study. Pharmgenomics Pers Med 2023;16:145-51.
249. Plantone D, Koudriavtseva T. Current and future use of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine in infectious, immune, neoplastic, and neurological diseases: a mini-review. Clin Drug Investig 2018;38:653-71.
250. Guennec P, Dromer C, Sixou L, Marc V, Coustals P, Fournié B. Treatment of horton disease. value of synthetic antimalarials. apropos of a retrospective study of 36 patients. Rev Rhum Ed Fr 1994;61:485-90.
251. Hydroxychloroquine in giant cell arteritis. Available from: https://classic.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/record/NCT00430807 [Last accessed on 27 Feb 2024].
252. Rongyi C, Zongfei J, Jiang L, et al. Effect of hydroxychloroquine on angiographic progression in routine treatment of takayasu arteritis. Mod Rheumatol 2021;31:1135-41.
253. Casian A, Sangle S, D'cruz D. AB0531 the role of hydroxychloroquine in ANCA positive and negative vasculitis. Ann Rheum Dis 2016;75:1086-7.
254. Papachristodoulou E, Kakoullis L, Tiniakou E, Parperis K. Therapeutic options for cutaneous polyarteritis nodosa: a systematic review. Rheumatology 2021;60:4039-47.
255. Panda PK, Sharawat IK, Natarajan V, Bhakat R, Panda P, Dawman L. COVID-19 treatment in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Family Med Prim Care 2021;10:3292-302.
256. Kolkhir P, Grakhova M, Bonnekoh H, Krause K, Maurer M. Treatment of urticarial vasculitis: a systematic review. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2019;143:458-66.
257. Bostan E, Akdogan N, Gokoz O, Dogan S. Rapid response to combination of hydroxychloroquine and prednisolone in a patient with refractory hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis. Dermatol Ther 2020;33:e14531.
258. Lopez LR, Davis KC, Kohler PF, Schocket AL. The hypocomplementemic urticarial-vasculitis syndrome: therapeutic response to hydroxychloroquine. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1984;73:600-3.
259. Batioğlu F, Taner P, Aydintuğ OT, Heper AO, Ozmert E. Recurrent optic disc and retinal vasculitis in a patient with drug-induced urticarial vasculitis. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2006;25:281-5.
260. Farkas H, Szongoth M, Bély M, et al. Angiooedema due to acquired deficiency of C1-esterase inhibitor associated with leucocytoclastic vasculitis. Acta Derm Venereol 2001;81:298-300.
261. Jachiet M, Flageul B, Deroux A, et al. French Vasculitis Study Group. The clinical spectrum and therapeutic management of hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis: data from a French nationwide study of fifty-seven patients. Arthritis Rheumatol 2015;67:527-34.
262. Basnet A, Cholankeril MR. Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in a patient with goodpasture's syndrome: a rare clinical association. Am J Case Rep 2014;15:431-6.
